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VOL.    XXXIII 

HARNACK'S  THE  DATE  OF  THE  ACTS  AND 

OF  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 


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IV 

THE  DATE  OF  THE  ACTS 

AND    OF 

THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 


BY 

ADOLF  HARNACK 

PROFESSOR  OF   CHURCH    HISTORY   IN   THE   UNIVERSITY  OF   BERLIN 


TRANSLATED  BY 

THE  REV.  J.  R.  WILKINSON,  M.A. 

LATE   SCHOLAR   OF   WORCESTER  COLLEGE,  OXFORD  ; 
AND  RECTOR  OF   WINFORD 


WILLIAMS    &    NORGATE 

14   HENRIETTA   STREET,   COVENT  GARDEN,   LONDON 

NEW   YORK:  G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 

1911 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

Microsoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/dateofactssynoptOOharniala 


CONTENTS 

OHAP.  PAGE 

I.  The  Identity  of  the  Author  of  the  "We"- 
Sections  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  with 
the  Author  of  the  whole  Work       .         .  1 

II.  The  Chief  Argument  against  the  Lukan 
Authorship  of  the  Acts  :  Jewish  Chris- 
tianity (Judaism),  St  Paul  and  St  Luke  .         30 

Introduction   ......  30 

A.  St  Paul's  attitude  towards   Jewish   Chris- 

tianity   and    Judaism    according    to    his 
Epistles  ;  his  Jewish  limitations         .         .         40 

B.  The  attitude  of  the  Apostle  St  Paul  towards 

Judaism  and  Jewish  Christianity  according 

to  the  last  chapters  of  the  Acts         .         .         67 

III.  The  Date  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and 

of  the  Synoptic  Gospels    ....         90 

Introduction  ......         90 

1.  The  conclusion  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
and  its  silence  concerning  the  result  of 
St  Paul's  trial 93 


vi    THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

CHAP.  PAGK 

2.  Further  negative  indications  in  favour  of  an 

early  date  for  the  Acts      ...         99 

3.  The  importance  of  the  passage  Acts  xx.  25 

(xx.  38)  in  determining  the  date  of  the 

book 103 

4.  Positive  evidence  for  an  early  date  drawn 

from  terminology      .         .         .         .         .103 

5.  Objections  to  an  early  date  for  the  Acts  of 

the  Apostles  (Conclusion)  .         .         .       114 

6.  The  date  of  the  Gospel  of  St  Luke      .         .       116 

7.  The  date  of  St  Mark's  Gospel      .         .         .126 

8.  The  date  of  St  Matthew's  Gospel         .         .133 

IV.  The  Primitive  Legends  of  Christendom         .       136 


DATE  OF  THE  ACTS 
AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

CHAPTER  I 


u 


THE  IDENTITY  OF  THE  AUTHOR  OF  THE  "  WE  -SECTIONS 
OF  THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES  WITH  THE  AUTHOR 
OF    THE    WHOLE    WORK 

One  of  the  strongest  arguments  in  favour  of  this 
identity  is  the  argument  from  language  and  style.  In 
my  two  earlier  works  {Luke  the  Physician  and  The  Acts 
of  the  Apostles)  I  have  presented  this  argument  in  full 
detail,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  have  proved  conclusively 
that  the  hypothesis  of  a  difference  of  authors  is  unten- 
able. We  are  here  concerned  not  only  with  a  striking 
agreement  in  the  use  of  words,  but  with  an  agreement 
in  syntax  and  style  which  is  just  as  striking,  and  above 
all  with  an  identity  of  interest  which  extends  into  the 
minutest  details  of  the  narrative,  such  as  the  literary 
treatment  of  persons,  lands,  cities,  peoples,  houses,  dates, 
etc.,  and  which  shows  itself  even  in  similar  instances  of 
carelessness  and  petty  discrepancy.  But  a  certain 
number  of  critics  still  regard  the  proof  as  unsatisfactory. 
Thus  Paul  Wilhelm  Schmidt l  declares  that  "  linguistic 

1  Festschrift  zur  Feier  des  Jf50-jahr.  Bestehens  der  Univ.  Basel  (De 
Wette-Overbeck's  Werk  zur  Apostelgesch.  und  dessen  jiingste  Bestreit- 
ung),  1910,  S.  44. 

1 


2     THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

homogeneity  is  not  the  same  thing  as  linguistic  identity ; 
between  even  St  Luke's  gospel  of  the  Childhood, 
especially  the  Magnificat  and  Benedictus  on  the  one 
hand,  and  the  rest  of  the  gospel  of  St  Luke  on  the  other 
hand,  there  exists,  as  Harnack  has  lately  shown,  a  far- 
reaching  linguistic  harmony.""  But  it  is  just  identity, 
and  not  merely  homogeneity,  which  is  disclosed  by  our 
researches  into  St  Luke's  language  and  style ;  and  the 
gospel  of  the  Childhood,  including  the  two  canticles,  is 
shown  to  be  no  source  which,  like  the  supposed  "  diary  of 
travel,"  has  been  incorporated  into  his  work,  but  either 
a  free  elaboration  of  oral  tradition  or  a  free  translation 
of  an  Aramaic  record.  From  the  study  of  the  source  Q 
in  the  gospel  we  can  learn  how  a  source  that  has  been 
adopted  by  St  Luke  stands  out  from  his  own  work.  Of 
the  261  words  which  occur  in  the  New  Testament  only 
in  the  gospel  of  St  Luke,  3  at  the  most  are  to  be 
found  in  the  sections  of  the  gospel  derived  from  Q l ! 
Compare  with  this  the  vocabulary  of  the  "  we  "-sections 
in  its  relation  to  that  of  the  whole  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ! 
Is  not  this  in  itself  enough  to  convince  any  critic  that 
the  "  we  "-sections  could  not  have  been  an  independent 
source  ?  But  how  much  easier  it  is  to  obtain  credence 
for  some  questionable  hypothesis  than  to  gain  accept- 
ance for  what  admits  of  stringent  logical  demonstration  ! 
So  it  has  ever  been,  and  so  it  will  ever  be !  It  is  the  same 
with  Clemen.  Again  the  proof  based  upon  language 
and  style  makes   no  impression.      He  writes2 — all  is 

1  Sayings  of  Jesus,  Preface. 

2  "Professor  Harnack  on  Acts"  {Hibbert  Journal,  viii.  4,  1910, 
July,  p.  787). 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR        3 

explained  "  partly  from  the  fact  that  these  details  are 
historical  and  therefore  could  be  mentioned  by  various 
writers,  partly  from  the  terminology  common  to  the 
whole  book  of  Acts.'1  This  is  a  way  out  of  the  difficulty 
that  can  be  acquiesced  in  only  by  one  who  has  not 
studied  in  detail  the  actual  nature  of  the  coincidences 
and  is  content  to  quiet  his  intellectual  conscience  with 
preconceived  opinions.1 

Seeing  that  so  much  depends  upon  the  argument  in 
question,  I  have  now  determined  to  lay  before  my  readers 
the  whole  material  upon  which  it  is  based.  In  my 
treatise  Luke  the  Physician  (pp.  40-65)  I  verse  by  verse 
pointed  out  the  linguistic  coincidences  in  the  passages 
Acts  xvi.  10-17  and  xxviii.  1-16,  and  then  gave  a 
summary  description  (pp.  67-84)  of  the  vocabulary  of 
the  "  we  "-sections  in  comparison  with  the  whole  Acts 
of  the  Apostles.  I  shall  now  in  the  following  pages 
print  the  whole  text  of  the  "  we  "-sections,  underlining 
those  words  or  constructions  which  occur  again  in  the 
Acts  and  in  the  gospel  of  St  Luke,  while  in  the  rest 
of  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament  they  find 
either  no  parallel  or  one  of  a  slight  description.2     From 

1  I  am  the  more  pleased  to  find  that  Moulton,  the  foremost  authority 
on  New  Testament  Greek,  upholds  the  unity  of  authorship.  He  writes 
{A  Grammar  of  the  New  Testament,3  1908,  p.  14):  "I  was  quite 
content  to  shield  myself  behind  Blass  ;  but  Harnack  has  now  stepped 
in  with  decisive  effect.  The  following  pages  will  supply  not  a  few 
grammatical  points  to  supplement  Harnack's  stylistic  evidence  in  Luke 
the  Physician."  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Moulton  has  himself  noticed  a 
whole  series  of  delicate  stylistic  traits  which  confirm  the  unity  of 
authorship. 

2  We  add  a  few  other  peculiarities  which  the  ' '  we  "-sections  share 
with  the  whole  book  of  the  Acts,  apart  altogether  from  the  gospels. 


4     THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

considerations  of  space  I  may  be  allowed  to  omit  a  com- 
mentary on  these  passages,  such  as  that  which  I  have 
given  upon  ch.  xvi.  10-17  and  xxviii.  1-6.  The 
principles  in  accordance  with  which  the  passages  are 
selected  remain  exactly  the  same ;  and  the  careful  reader, 
with  the  help  of  a  concordance — the  commentaries,  with 
the  exception  of  that  of  B.  Weiss,  will  often  fail  him — 
will  easily  be  able  to  ascertain  in  each  particular  case  the 
reason  why  a  particular  word  or  construction  is  under- 
lined. It  is  obvious  that  the  distinction  by  underlining 
is  not  always  of  the  same  value,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
represent  in  print  different  degrees  of  importance, 
especially  when  in  many  cases  the  valuation  cannot  be 
other  than  subjective. 

xvi.  10-17. 
10  'Qy  Se  to  opa/ma  etSev,  evQeuxs  e^rjTrj<rafj.ev  e£eXQeTv 
eiy  M-cuceSoviav,  (TVfi/3ifid£ovTe$  on  Trpoo-Keic\r]Tai  i^ua? 
6  0eoy  evayyeXlo-aaOai  airrouy.  u  avax&evTe?  Se  airo 
TpwaSos  €vOuSpo/j.i]<Tafi€v  ety  ^a/uLaOpaKJjv,  Ty  Se  eTriovcrjj 
ety  Neai>  TLoKiv,  12Kaiceidev  els  <l?t\/7r7rouy,  rjris  eariv 
irpwrrj  rrJ9  fieplSog  rrjs  McwcecWtay  7roXis,  KoXoavla. 
tjfiev  Se  ev  raurfl  777  7roXet  Siarpl^oirreg  rjfiepas  Tivay. 
13  Tfl  T€  fip.epq  tcov  aa^^aroov  e^TjXdo/mev  e£w  T?f  TrvXrjs 
irapa  TroTa/iov,  oS  evofil^ofiev  Trpoa-evxhv  eivai,  kcu 
KaOlfravres  eXaXov/uev  Tats  <rvveX6ov<rcus  yvpcu£lv.  u  <ai 
Tiy  yvvr\  ovoiacvti  AvSia,  TropQvpoiraoXis  7ro\e<»y  Ovareipwv, 
are^ofievrj  rbv  Oeov,  rjicovcv,  w  6  tcvpio?  Snqvoi£ev  Trjv  icap- 
Siav  tt po<rexeiv  tois  XaXovnevoig  viro  HavXov.  15(w?  Se 
efSairTicrQr}  /ecu  6  oTko$  avTrjs,  irapeKaXeg-ev  Xeyovaa'  el 
KCKpiKare  fie  Tria-Tr/v  tw  Kvplw  etvai,  eureXOovre?  els  top 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR        5 

oTkov  /jlov  p.evere'  Kal  irape^Laa-aro  jj/xa?.  16eyeVeTO  Se, 
iropevopevwv  rquSiv  ei$  Tqv  irpo&evxw,  iraiSiaK^v  Tiva 
e\ova-gv  irvevpa  irvQuiva  inravTrjcrai  fjiJ.lv,  rjris  epyacriav 
iroXXtjv  Trapeixev  tqIs  Kvploig  avTrjq  fiavTevopevrj.  17  avrr\ 
KCLTOLKoXovOovcra  tw  ILavXw  Kal  fip.lv  eKpafcv  Xeyovcra' 
ovtoi  01  avSpooTTOL  SovXoi  tov  Oeov  tov  v\fr[<TTOu  elviv, 
oirives  KarayyeXXovcriv  vp.lv  oSbv  arcoT*]piag.  tovto  Se 
€7roi€i  €7ri  TToXAa?  f/pepag. 

xx.  4-16;  xxi.  1-18. 

42w/«7re-ro  Se  avrcp  \YlavXw\  2w7rar/0O9  Tlvppov 
Bepomtop,  QecrcraXoviicecov  Se  'Apiorapxos  icai  2e/coui/<$o? 
kcli  Tal'og  Aepfialos  kcu  TipoOeos,  'Aaiavoi  Se  Tvxikos 
kcu  Tp6<f>ipo$.  5  ovtoi  Se  7rpoeX96vT€$  ep.evov  f{pa$  ev 
TpwaSi.  6  fjpels  Se  e£eirXevcrapev  pera  ra?  ypepas  twv 
a^vpwv  anrb  ^lXlttttoov  kcu  rfXdopev  irpbs  avrovg  etV  Ttp 
TpcoaSa  ctxpi  fjp.epwv  Trevre,  ov  SieTptyapev  fjpepas  eirra. 
7ev  Se  Tfl  pua  tcov  <ra./3/3a.Ta)v  o-vvr/ypevoov  fjpwv  KXacrai 
aprov  6  ILavXos  SieXeyero  avToh,  pLeXXoov  e£ievai  Tfl 
eiravpiov,  irapereivev  re  tov  Xoyov  p^XPL  P-gvovvktiov. 
8  qtrav  Se  Xap.TraSe$  iKaval  ev  tu>  vTrepuxp,  ov  qp.ev  avvriy- 
pevoi.  9  Ka6e£6pevos  Se  ti$  veavlas  ovopari  Euti/%o? 
eiri  Tt}$  OvplSos,  Ka,Toi(pep6pevo$  virvw  /3a6el,  StaXeyop.evov 
tov  HavXov  cttI  7rXelov,  KaTevexOelg  airb  tov  vttvov 
'eirecrev    airb    tov    TpierTeyov    kcltco    kcu    qpOr}    veKpos. 

10  /caTa/3ap  Se  6  IlauXo?  exeVecrei/  clvtu)  kcu  o-vvwepiXafiiiov 
elirev'  prj  6opvf3elcr6e.     f]  yap  tyvxh  civtov  ev  avT(p  eo~Tiv. 

11  ava/3a$  Se  kcu  KXacrag  tov  apTov  Kal  yevcrapevos  €</>' 
iKavov  tc  opiXfjcras  a-Xpt  avyrjs,  ovtco?  e£r}Xdev.  12  yyayov 
Se   tov   iralSa   £<Si/Ta,   Kal    TrapeKXtfdijo-av    ov    perplcog. 


6     THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

1S  qpetg  Se  wpocreXOovTeg  cttI  to  ttXoiov  dvrix^^^  €irL 
Trjv" Ao-grov,  eicelQev  peXXovreg  dvaXapfidveiv  tov  HavXov ' 
ovrcog  yap  S  laTeT  ay  pevog  ify,  peXXoov  avTog  ire^eveiv. 
14  wg  Se  cvveftaXXev  yptv  eig  rrjv  "Acraov,  dvaXaj3ovTeg 
avTov  rjXQopev  eig  M.iTv\r}vtiv.  15  KaiceiQev  aTro7rXev<ravTeg 
Tfl  eiriov<rfl  KaTr\vTr\(rapev  avTiKpvg  Xlov,  Tfl  Se  ecnrepa 
TrapefSdXopev  eig  2dpov,  /ecu  pelvavTeg  ev  TpcayiXla  Tfl 
e\opevfl  %X6opev  els  M.lXt]TOV  16  KeKpUei  yap  6  ILavXog 
TrapairXevo-at  Trjv  "E^eo-ov,  OTrcog  ph  ykvr\rai  avru> 
Xpovor pi(3rjo~ai  ev  Tfl  'Acr/a'  ecnrevSev  yap,  el  SvvaTov 
elri  avT(a,  Tr\v  rjpepav  Trjg  TrevrrjKoaTrjg  yevecrdai  eig 
lepocroXvpa  .... 

xxi.  l'Qg  Se  eyevero  dvaxQrivai  qpag  airocnracrQevTas 
air  avTcov,  ev6vSpop^<ravTe<i  "jXQopev  eig  Ttjv  Kco,  Tfl  Se 
e£r}g  eig  rrjv  'YoSov,  Kaicefflev  eig  ILdrapa.  2  kox  eupoureg 
ttXoiov  Siairepwv  eig  QoivUrjv,  e7Ti/3dvTeg  dvri\/drip.ev. 
8  ava<pdvavTeg  Se  Ttjv  ILvirpov  Kai  KaTaXnrovTeg  avTtjv 
evoovvpov  eirXeopev  eig  Hvplav,  icai  KarrjXOopev  eig  Tvpov. 
eKelae  yap  to  ttXoiov  %v  d.Tro<fiopTi£6pevov  tov  yopov. 
*  avevpovTeg  Se  Tovg  paOrjTag  eirepeivapev  avTov  rj/JLepag 
€7TTa.  o"iTiveg  tw  TLavXo)  eXeyov  Sia  tov  irvevpaTog  pr] 
eirifSalveiv  eig 'lepocroXvpa.  5  otc  Se  eyeveTO  e£apTio~ai 
fjpag  Tag  rjpepag,  e^eXOovTeg  eiropevopeda  TrpoTrepTrovToov 
ripag  7ravT(i)v  avv  yuvai£l  /ecu  Teicvoig  ecog  e£co  T^g  iroXewg, 
Kai  OevTeg  to,  yovaTa  eirl  tov  alyiaXbv  irpo<rev£dpevoi 
6  airricnraadpeQa  dXXrjXovg,  Kai  eveftypev  eig  to  ttXoiov, 
eiceivoi  Se  virea-Tpeyfrgy  eig  to,  "Sia.  7  r/neig  Se  tov  ttXovv 
SiavveravTeg  airo  Tvpov  tcaTrjVTijaapev  eig  TlToXepa'iSa, 
Kai  a<nracrdpevoi  Tovg  dSeX<povg  e/xelvapev  rjpepav  plav 
Trap'  avTOig.  8Tfl  Se  eiravpiov  e£eX06vTeg  rfXdopev  eig 
Kaicraplav,  Kai  elcreXOovTeg  eig  tov  oikov  ^iXIttttov  tov 


THE  IDENTITY  OF  THE  AUTHOR       7 

evayyeXitTTov,  ovto$  ck  twv  eirTa,  epelvapev  Trap'  avru>' 
9tout(o  Se  %<rav  Ovyarepes  Tecraapeq  irapOevoi  irpo- 
(ptjTevovacu.  10  eTripevovrcov  Se  ypepag  7r\eiov$  KCLTtjXdeV 
ti$  airo  T?/g  'louSalag  7rpo<pi]Tt]s  ovofxart  "Aya/3oSt  u  kcu 
eXOoov  7rpos  rjpa?  kcu  apa$  rrjv  ^wvtjv  tov  TIavXov,  Sqcras 
eavTOv  tov$  ttoSols  kcu  Ta?  xe*/°a?  e?7rev'  Ta.Se  Xeyei  to 
irvevpa  to  dyiov'  tov  avSpa,  ov  ccttiv  fj  ^wvrj  avTr},  ovtu)? 
8rja-ov(TLV  ev  lepovo-aXrjp  oi  'lovSatoi  kcu  TrapaSuxxovtriv 
eh  xe'"/°«?  eOvwv.  12  a>9  Se  ijKovcrapev  Tavra,  irapeKaXovpev 
rjpeh  Te  kou  oi  evTOiTioi  tov  prj  avafialveiv  avTOV  ety 
lepovcraXqp..  ™tot€  direKpiQri  6  IlauXo?'  ti  TroieiTe 
/cXa/orre?  kcu  avvOpvirTOVTes  pov  Trjv  KapSlav ;  eya)  yap 
ov  povov  SeOrjvai  aXXa  /ecu  airoQavelv  eh  \epovtTaXrjp 
eTOipaog  e^w  virep  tov  ovopaTO?  tov  Kvpiov  'Irjaov. 
u  prj  ireiQopevov  Se  avTOv  rjcrvxd.(rapev  eiVovre?'  tov 
Kvpiov  to  deXrjpa  yiveadeo.  15  peTct  Se  Tag  ypepa? 
TauTOis  eino~Keva<Tapevoi  avefialvopev  eh  \epocroXvixa. 
16  awrjXQov  Se  /ecu  toov  paBryrSiv  airo  Katcra/o/a?  crvv 
f/plv,  ayovTeg  irap  u>  ^eviadwpev  M-vdcreovi  tivi  Ku7r/CH«, 
apxalip  pa6r}Tfl.  17  yevopevoov  Se  rjpwv  eh  lepocroXvpa 
acrpevoog  cnreSe^avTO  ripa?  oi  aSeX<f>oi.  18  tq  Se  eiriovcrfl 
elo-yei  6  IlauXo?  o~vv  rjplv  717309  'Idycoffoy,  iravTes  Te  Trape- 
yevovTO  oi  Trpeo-fivTepoi  .... 

xxvii.  1-xxviii.  16. 

^Q?  Se  eKplOri  tov  cnroTrXeiv  rjpas  eh  Tt\v  'iTCtXtav, 
irapeSLSovv  tov  Te  IlauXov  koli  tlvcis  eTepovs  Seo-pcoras 
eKOiTOVTapxfl  ovopaTi  'lovXicp  o"Treipri<}  'ZefioxrTrjs.  2€tti- 
fidvTes  Se  7rXo/&>  ''A.SpapvTTqvcp  peXXovTi  wXelv  et?  tovs 

KOLTO.    Ti]V    'AarlaV     TOTTOVS    CLV^xB^^Vf     OVTOi     crvv     fjplv 


8     THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

'ApKrrdpxou  MaiceSovos  Qea-a-aXoviKewg'  3t#  t€  erepa 
KaTyxOwev  eh  2)t(S&W  <j>CkavQ ptjcnru)?  tc  6  'IouXto?  tw 
IlauXft)  ^/)»7(ra/>iej/05  €7r€Tpe\Jsev  7T/oo9  tou?  <plXovs  iropev- 
OevTL  eViyueXe/a?  tux^-  4  KciKeiOev  avaxQevTes  vireirXev- 
o'ap.ev  ttjv  K.V7rpov  Sid  to  tov?  ave/novs  elvai  evavTiovs, 
5  to  Te  7re'Xayo?  to  KaTa  tvjv  TLiXiKiav  Kal  ILa/ixtyvXiav 
SicnrXeucravTes  KaTrjXOafxev  eh  M.vppa  Trj$  AvKias.  6  Kaicei 
evpwv  6  e/caTOVTapxys  ttXoiov  'AXe£avSpivov  irXeov  ety 
T>jv  'IraXlav  evefil&acrev  rjixd^  eh  clvto.  7  evucavah  Se 
rnxepcu?  fipaSvirXoovvTe*}  Kal  p.6Xi$  yevo/xevoi  Kara  ttjv 
HLviSov,  firj  irpocreuivTOS  was  tov  ave/mov,  vireirXeva-aiAev 
Tt]v  KprJTyv  Kara  SaX/xcoi/jji/,  8  /uloXis  re  irapaXeyop-evoi 
avrqv  qXOo/Jiev  eh  totcov  rtva  KaXovnevov  KaXou?  Ai/mevag, 
(p  eyyi/y  tjv  ttoXi$  Aaaala.  9  Uavov  Se  xpovov  Siayevo- 
ixevov  Kal  ovto9  q$*l  e7n<T<pa\ovs  tov  7rXoo?  Sia  to  k at 
rr\v  vv\<TTelav  %Sr]  TrapeXrjXvOevah  irapflvei  6  IlauXo?  Xeywu 
avroh'  10  avSpe?,  Oecopu)  on  fxerd  vfipews  Kal  7roXXijg 
fa/alas  ov  fAovov  tov  (j>opTiov  kcu  tov  irXoiov  dXXa  KOI 
tcov  "yjsvxwv  rj/xuiv  /meXXeiv  ecrearOai  tov  7rXovv.  n  6  Se 
eKdTOVTapxw  tw  Kv/3epvi]Tfl  Kal  tw  vavKXrfpio  /naXXov 
eireiQero  tj  Toh  v7ro  IlauXoy  Xeyop.evoi9-  12  avevQeTOv  Se 
tov  Xifxevos  vTrapxovTOs  tt/oo?  TrapaxciV-amav  oi  TrXeiove? 
eOevTO  fiovXriv  avaydrp/ai  eKeidev,  ei  7ra>9  SvvaivTO  Karav- 
Tr)cravTe<;  eh  QoiviKa  Trapax^^daai^  Xi/u.eva  Trjs  K/0>/t»79 
fiXeirovTa  KaTa.  X//3a  Kal  /cctTa  x®P0V'  13  viroirvevo-avTos 
Se  votov  S6£avT€$  tw  TrpoOeareco?  KCKpaTtjKevai,  apavTes 
ctcro~ov  irapeXeyovTO  Ti]v  ILprjrrjv.  u  neT*  ov  nroXv  Se 
efiaXev  KaT  avTrjs  ave/xos  TvrfxoviKog  6  KaXov/uevos  evpa- 
kvXoov.  15  cvvapTraarOeuTog  Se  tov  ttXolov  Kai  p.r}  Svvafxevov 
avTO<p6aXfji.etv  tw  ave/xw  eiriSovTes  efapofieOa.  16  vrja-iov 
Se  ti  viroSpa/JLovTes  KaXov/xevov  l&\avSa  urxwrafuv  /xoXty 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR       9 

irepucpareis  yeveaOai  rrjs  O7ca0»7?,  17  r)v  apavres  /3orj6eiai$ 
expwvro,  viro^oovvvvTes  to  irXolov'  <pofiovp.ei>oi  re  p.r\  et? 
ttjv  Xvpriv  eKTritrwaiv,  xaXavavTes  to  aicevos,  oi/Twy 
e<pepovro.  18<T<fioSp5)$  Se  \ttfi.a^OfUv<»V  ripwv  Tfl  e(->/y 
CKpoArjv  e-iroiovvrO)  ™  /cat  t#  TpiTfl  auToxetpe?  t>/v 
(TKeurjv  tov  ttXoiov  eppi\fsav.  20  prp-e  >jAtou  /xj/re  aa-rpoav 
eirupaivovTwv  eVt  irXeiovas  f/fxepas,  x.eip.G)vo$  Te  ou/c 
SXlyov  eiruceipevov-,  Xoiirov  irepiypeiTO  eX7rt?  iraua  tov 
era>£ecrOat  qp.a$.  21  7roXX^9  Te  dtriTcag  UTrapxov<rri$  totc 
CTTadei?  6  IlauXo?  ei/  peVw  axiTWv  elirev'  eSet  pev,  <u  avSpes, 
Trei6a.pxwa.VTas  pot  prj  dvayeaOat  airo  Trj$  K/oj/ti?? 
KepSrjcrat.  re  ttjv  vfipiv  ravrrju  /cat  rrjv  fyplav.  22  Kai  Ta 
vvv  irapaivw  vpa?  evOvpeiv'  dirofioXt}  yap  yfsvxw  ovSepia 
ecrrai  e£  vpwv  TrXtjv  tov  ttXoiov.  *  irapearrj  yap  poi 
Taurfl  Tfl  vvkti  tov  6eov,  ov  eipi,  (b  Kai  Xarpevo),  ayyeXo? 
24  Xeyoav'  pi]  (j>of3ov,  IlauXe"  KatVapt  o~e  Set  Trapaartjvai, 
Kai  iSov  KexaPl<TTaL  °"0f  o  deog  7ravra$  tov$  7rXeoi/Tay 
pera  <xoi/.  *  &o  evdvpeiTe,  avSpeg'  iricrTevia  yap  to 
flew  oVt  oirtoy  eiTTai  /cafl'  ov  Tpoirov  XeXdXrjTai  poi. 
26  et?  vtjuov  Se  Tiva  Sei  »7pay  eKireueiv.  27  to?  $e  Te<r<rapecr- 
KaiSeKarrj  vv£  eyevero  Sia<pepopevcov  fip.S>v  ev  to  'ASpia, 
Kara  pecrov  T*js  vvktos   virevoovv    ol  vavrai  irpoaayeiv 

Stmt  OQ  \         /}     -y    7  /?  5  \ 

Tiva  avroi?  x°°Pav-  Kai  poXicravTe?  evpov  opyviag 
e'Uoai,  fipaxu  $£  Sicumfawms  kou  irdXiv  /3oX/<rai/Tey 
evpov  6pyvid$  SeKairevre'  29  <f>of3ovpevoi  re  ixr\  7rou 
Kara  Tpax^h  tottovj  e/c7re'<Tft)pef,  e/c  irpvpLvw  pl\fravTe$ 
ay/ci/pa?  Tea-capag  euxovro  rjp.epav  yeveavai.  rwv  oe 
vavroov  £t]TOvvT(t)v  <}>vyeiv  e/c  tou  ttXoiov  ko.1  xa^a<TOiVTWV 
rrjv  a-Kacj>riv  ei$  t*]v  OdXacraav  Trpo<f>d<rei  wy  e/c  irpwp^ 
aynvpas  p-eXXovrtov  eKTeiveiv,  zl  eiirev  6  IlauXoy  tw 
eKarovTapxn  kcu  to??  a-TpancoTaig'  edv  prj  ovtol  p\elvio<riv 


10  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

eV   tco  ttXoiu),  vfieh  irooOfjvai  ov  SvvaarOe.     32tot€  aire- 

KOifsav  oi  (TTpariwrai  ra  <r\oivla  r^?  <r«ra0»79  koi  eia<rav 

avTtjv  eKirecrelv.     w  <*XPl  °*e  °$  Wspa-  qp.eXXev  yiveaOai, 

irapeKaXei  6  IlauXo?  aTravTa<s  p.eTaXa/3eiv  Tpo<pij$  Xeycov' 

TecraapecTKaiSeKarrriv  crrfixepov  r\ixepav  irpoaSoicoovTes  acriTOi 

SiaTeXeiTe,  [xtjSev  7rpo<rXa/36fJ.€voi.     **  Sio  TrapaicaXu)  u/xa? 

jULeTaXafieiv    Tpo<f)rj$'    tovto    yap    irpos    rrjs    vfAerepas 

(rwrripias    virapxei'    ovSevbs    yap    v/jl5>v    Qpij   giro    Trjs 

K€<pa\fjs  onroXetTai.     35  e?7ra?  Se  ravra  <a\  Xaficov  aprov 

evXapi<TTri<rev  tw  dew  evunriov  ttclvtodv  ical  icXdaras  %p£aT0 

eadleiv.     ^eudv/xoi  Se  yevdfxevoi  7ravre$  kcu  avrot  irpocr- 

eXd/3ovTO    Tpo<pr)<;.      37  fj/meOa    Se    ai    iracrai    ijsvxai    w 

TO)  7rXota>  Siaicocriai  e(3Sop.r)KOVTa  e£.     M  KopecrOivreg  Se 

Tpo<pf}$    eicovcpi^ov    to    irXoiov   €K/3a.XX6/ULeVOl   TOV  (TITOV 

eh  Ttjv  ddXaaaav.     39  ore  Se  f/fiepa  eyevero,  Ttjv  yrjv  ovk 

€7reyiva)(rKov,  koXttov  Se  riva  icaTevoovv  e\ovTa  aiyiaXov, 

eis  ov  e/SovXevovTO  el  Svvaivro  e^axrai  to  7rXoiov-     40  ku\ 

Ta?    ayicvpas    wepieXovTeg  eloov   eh  Tr)v  OaXao'cravy  dfxa 

avevTeg   Tag    ^evKTtjplag   tu>v   7Tt}SaXio)v,   Kai    eirdpavres 

tov  dpTefxoova   777    Trveovcfl  icareixov  eh  tov  alyiaXov. 

41  TrepnreaovTeg  Se  eh  tottov  SiOdXacrcrov  iireiceiXav  ttjv 

vavv,  Kai.  r)  p.ev  irpu>pa  e/ixeivev  do-dXevros,  r)  Se  Trpv/mva 

eXveTO    vtto    Trj$   /3lag.      42twj/   Se   crTpaTicoTwv    /3ovXt) 

eyeveTO  Iva    tov$  Sear/udoTas  cnroKTeivcoaiv,  p.r\  Tig  £kko- 

Xvp./3ijcrag   Siatyvyti'     **  6   Se   eKaTOVTapxi?  fiovX6p.evos 

Siaaccxrai  tov  ILavXov  eKwXvcrev  avTOvg  tov  /3ovXtip.aTog, 

CKeXevcrev   tc   toi>$    Svvap.evovg   KoXvp./3av  airopityavTa? 

irpcoTOvs  e7rl  Trjv  yrjv  e£ievai,  **  ica)  tov?  Xonrovg  ovg  /uev 

em  araviaiv,  01)9  Se  eirl  tivcov  twv  cnro  tov  ttXoiov.     Kai 

ovTwg  eyeveTO  TravTa?  Sia(ra)drjvai  eiri  ttjv  yrjv. 

xxviii.  J  Kai  Siao-ooOevre?  Tore  eireyvwiAev  oti  MeX/n? 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE  AUTHOR       11 

r)  vrjcrog  KaXeiTai.  2  o'i  re  fidpfiapoi  irapelxo.v  ov  ty)v 
Tvxovcrav  <j>iXavdpco7riav  rjiJ.lv'  ayp-avres  yap  irvpav  irpocr- 
eXa/3ovTO  iravraq  r)pa$  Sia  tov  verov  tov  ecfreo-Tarra 
Kai  Sia  to  yjsvxos-  3  (Tvvt peifs (xvtos  Se  tov  IlauXoD 
(ppvyavoov  tl  irXrjOog  Kai  eiriTiOevTO?  eiri  Tr\v  irvpav 
e\i8va  airo  t»79  Oepprjs  e^eXOovtra  Kadijijse  Trj$  \eipbs 
avTOV.  4  ft)?  Se  etSov  01  /3ap(3apoi  Kpep.dp.evov  to  drjpiov 
eK  tj/9  X€lP°$  avTOu,  717)0?  a\\rj\ov$  eXeyov'  ttoivtoos 
<povev$  eo~Tiv  0  av6po)7ros  ovtos,  ov  SiacrcoOevra  ck  Ttjs 
6aXa<rcrr]<;  r)  AiKt]  £r}v  ovk  e'tacrev.  5  6  pev  ovv  cnroTivd^ag 
to  drjpiov  ets  to  7rvp  ewaOev  ovSev  KaKOv.  6  01  Se  irpo- 
aeSoKoov  avTov  peXXeiv  TTipirpavQai  r)  KaTaTTiiTTeiv  atpvw 
veicpov.  eiri  iroXv  Se  avTCOv  ir  poaSoKuovTow  ko.1  OeoopovvTcov 
prjSev  aTOTTOv  etg  avTov  yivo/xevov  peTafiaXopevoi  eXeyov 
avTov  elvai  Oeov. 

7  'Ev  Se  toi$  irepi  tov  tottov  eicelvov  virrjpxev  \(apla 
tw  7rpu)T(p  Tr)<s  vtfcrov,  ovopaTi  IIo7rA/ft),  0$  dva8e£dp.evo$ 
r)pa$  r)p.epa$  T/oet?  <piXo<ppovoo$  e£evicrev.  8  eyeveTO  Se 
tov  iraTepa  tov  IIo7rXtoi'  irvpeTOis  Kai  SvaevTep'up 
o-vvexd/J-evov  KaTaKeicrOai,  777)09  ov  6  TlavXo<s  ei<reX6oov 
Kai  irpocrev£apevo<i)  eiriQei?  Ta$  \eipa^  avT(a,  IdcraTO 
avTov.  9  tovtov  Se  yevopevov  Kai  01  Xonroi  01  ev  t/j 
V7]<r(p  exovres  daOeveias  irpocrripxovTO  Kai  eQepairevovTOt 
10  oi  Kai  7roXXai$  Tip.aU  eTiprjarav  r)pa$  /cat  avayopevoig 
eiredevTO  to.  717)09  ret  9  x/°ct'a?' 

11  Mera  Se  Tpeis  prjvas  av^x^rllUL€V  €v  irXolw  irapaKexei- 
p.aKOTi  ev  777  vrjcrw,  'AXe^avSpivcp,  irapaarripu)  AioarKovpois, 
12  Kai  KaTax^evTeg  ei$  H,vpaKovaa$  eTrefj.eivajui.ev  r)pepai$ 
Tpiaiv,  13  odev  7repieX96vTe$  KaTrjvTr/cra/ULev  etg  Yrfyiov, 
Kai  peTa  plav  r)pepav  eiriyevopevov  votov  Sevrepaioi 
rjXQopev   eh   noTto'Aoi^)  uo5  evpovTes  aSeX<pov$  irape- 


12  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

KK.riOrjij.ev  irap  avTOig  eirifxeivai  tj/nepag  eirra'  icai  ovtoos 
ety  Trjv'FcojUitjv  ijXOafjLev  16  Kcucefflev  oi  aSeXtpol  aKova-avreg 
to.  Trepl  facou  yXOau  ety  airavTriuiv  rj/j.lv  axpi  'Attttiov 
*&6pov  icai  Tpifav  Tafiepvwv,  01)9  iStov  6  UavXos  evxapi- 
<TTr)(ra$  rw  Sew  e\a(3ev  6ap<ro$.  16  ore  Se  elcrriXQoixev  e*y 
J?a>fir]v,  €7reTpa7rtj  too  TLavXui  p.eveiv  Kad'  kavrbv  <rvv  tw 
<f>vXd<TcrovTi  avTOv  CTTpaTiwTfl. 

No  one  who  surveys  these  passages  can  any  longer 
uphold  the  position  that  the  author  of  the  Acts  has 
here  edited  and  incorporated  in  his  work  an  original 
document  which  had  come  into  his  hands.  Why  is 
this  hypothesis  excluded?  Not  only  because  of  the 
general  impression  made  by  the  overpowering  multitude 
of  coincidences,  but  above  all  because  of  two  indications 
whose  evidence  is  complementary : — (1)  In  no  other  part 
of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  the  peculiarities  of 
vocabulary  and  style  of  the  author  of  the  twofold  work 
so  accumulated  and  concentrated  as  they  are  in  the  "  we  n- 
sections.  I  have  thoroughly  investigated  both  halves 
of  the  history  as  to  vocabulary  and  style  from  all 
imaginable  points  of  view  and  in  all  possible  combina- 
tions, and  I  can  answer  for  the  statement — which  is, 
moreover,  suggested  by  a  glance  at  the  foregoing  text, 
with  its  underlined  passages — that  Luke,  i.e.  the  author 
of  the  twofold  historical  work,  proves  himself  as  an 
author  to  be  nowhere  more  Lukan  than  in  the  "  we 11- 
sections.  Setting  aside  the  technicalities  of  the  chapter 
on  the  shipwreck,  very  many  more  singularities  of  style 
are  to  be  found  in  any  other  part  of  the  Acts  and 
the  gospel   of  St   Luke  than   in   the  "  we  "-sections. 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR      IS 

These  sections,  however,  both  in  vocabulary  and  style, 
bring  the  author  complete  in  himself  before  our 
eyes ;  here,  as  in  a  jewel  case,  the  critic  of  language 
and  style  finds  heaped  together  all  that  goes  to  make 
the  peculiar  character  of  this  author ;  while  the  other 
passages  of  the  book  may  be  said  to  have  only  a  share, 
though  it  be  an  important  share,  in  the  treasure.  This 
is  just  what  we  should  expect  upon  the  hypothesis  of 
the  identity  of  the  author  of  the  "  we  "-sections  and  of 
the  author  of  the  whole  work  (while  upon  the  contrary 
hypothesis  it  presents  an  insoluble  problem)  ;  for  in  the 
"we "-sections  alone  he  writes  quite  independently, 
because  he  simply  reports  his  own  experiences ;  while  in 
all  the  rest  of  the  work  he  is  dependent  upon  oral  and 
written  tradition,  which  has  so  influenced  his  vocabulary 
and  style  that,  as  we  have  already  mentioned  above,  in 
the  portions  derived  from  Q  scarcely  3  of  the  261  words 
peculiar  to  St  Luke  make  their  appearance  (to  say 
nothing  of  the  Semitic  syntax  in  which  these  passages 
are  composed).1  Nearest  in  style  to  the  "  we  "-sections 
come  parts  of  the  second  half  of  the  Acts  in  which  the 
"  we "  does  not  occur.  This,  again,  is  just  what  we 
should  have  expected  ;  for  here  the  author  certainly  had 
no  written  sources  at  his  disposal  and  no  fixed  oral  tradi- 
tion to  depend  upon,  and  could  thus  let  himself  go. — 
(2)  "  Lukanisms,"  if  I  may  use  the  word,  are  as  strongly 
represented  in  the  fundamental  passages,  those  which  ex- 
press the  aim  and  interests  of  the  "  we  ''"'-sections,  as  in  the 
subsidiary  passages  and  all  that  belongs  to  the  external 
literary  form  of  these  sections.  If  we  were  only  con- 
1  Vide  my  Sayings  of  Jesus,  pp.  157  flF. 


14  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

cerned  with  Lukanisms  in  the  subsidiary  passages  it 
might  be  said  that  the  author  of  the  Acts  had  acci- 
dentally come  into  the  possession  of  a  record  written 
by  a  man  extraordinarily  like  himself  in  disposition 
and  education.  Such  an  accident,  taking  into  account 
all  the  details  of  coincidence,  would  be  strange  enough, 
neither  can  I  think  of  an  instance  comparable  with  it. 
Still,  it  is  just  possible  that,  among  certain  circles  of  the 
cultured  middle  class,  agreement  in  vocabulary  and 
modes  of  expression  had  become  extraordinarily  close ; 
somewhat  in  the  same  way  as  among  our  newspaper 
circles  of  to-day  a  reporting  style  of  meagre  sameness 
has  been  evolved.  But  this  is  not  the  only  phenomenon 
that  presents  itself  to  our  notice.  It  is  not  only  in  the 
literary  form  in  which  the  author  of  the  Acts  expresses 
what  interests  him,  but  also  in  his  sphere  of  interest 
itself,  that  he  shows  himself  identical  with  the  author 
of  the  "  we  "-sections.  Only  on  the  hypothesis  of  a 
thorough,  nay,  an  absolutely  revolutionary,  editing  of 
the  source  on  the  part  of  the  author  of  the  complete 
work  does  this  phenomenon  become  in  any  sense  intelli- 
gible ;  as,  indeed,  is  also  admitted  by  the  few  critics 
who  have  gone  into  the  question  at  all  thoroughly ; l 


1  Vide  Schiirer  (Theol.  Lit.  Ztg.,  1906,  col.  405,  in  his  notice  of  my 
Luke  the  Physician) :  ' '  All  the  statistical  facts  brought  forward  by 
Harnack  are  quite  satisfactorily  explained  on  the  two  hypotheses  that 
(1)  the  author  of  the  '  we  '-source  and  the  author  of  the  Acts  belong  to 
the  same  sphere  of  culture  and  linguistic  expression,  and  that  (2)  the 
latter  did  not  incorporate  his  source  unaltered,  but  revised  its  language." 
But  why  in  the  world  should  he  have  so  severely  edited  a  simple, 
straightforward  record  of  events  whose  style  was  similar  in  character  to 
his  own  ?    The  example  to  which  Schiirer  refers,  the  revision  of  Q  (also 


THE  IDENTITY   OF  THE  AUTHOR      15 

the  hypothesis  of  an  accidental  likeness  between  the 
two  authors  as  authors  is  in  this  case  insufficient.  If, 
however,  we  try  the  hypothesis  of  revision,  every 
possibility  of  ascertaining  what  really  stood  m  the  source 
at  once  vanishes ;  for  the  "  revision  "  must  have  been  so 
detailed  and  so  severe  that  it  is  now  simply  impossible 
to  form  any  distinct  conception  of  the  source.  And  yet 
in  spite  of  this  we  are  to  suppose  that  the  "  we "  was 
carefully  preserved  while  everything  else  was  recast ! 

Let  us  take,  by  way  of  trial,  the  account  of  the  ship- 
wreck !  If  a  source  were  present  here  it  would  be 
exceedingly  improbable  a  priori  that  we  should  discover 
between  it  and  the  rest  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles 
or  the  gospel  of  St  Luke  any  relationship  either  in 
language  or  in  style  that  would  be  worthy  of  mention ; 
for  neither  work  is  elsewhere  concerned  with  sea 
voyages.  And  yet,  how  overwhelming  even  here  is  the 
multitude  of  coincidences !  Let  us  consider  only  the 
first  three  verses. 

Verse  1.  oj?  Se]  is  specifically  Lukan ;  it  is  nowhere 
found  in  St  Mark  and  St  Matthew,  in  St  Luke  (Gospel 
and  Acts)  on  the  other  hand  it  is  exceedingly  frequent, 
and  that  in  all  parts  of  both  works. — eKpiQrj]  Kpiveiv 
does  not  occur  in  this  weakened  sense  in  St  Matthew, 
St  Mark,  and  St  John,  nor  is  it  found  at  all  frequently  in 
this  significance ;  yet  St  Luke  uses  it  thus  no  less  than 
twelve  times. — tov  aTroirKeiv  f/fjias  e*Y  t*]v  'IraXlav] 
Compare  with    this    not    very   common    construction 

of  St  Mark)  in  the  third  gospel,  is  not  a  parallel  instance  ;  for  these 
sources  were  written  in  a  style  which  the  cultured  editor  could  not 
allow  to  remain  unaltered. 


16  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Acts  xxiii.  15 :  eroi/uoi  ecr/xev  rod  aveXetv  avrov,  also 
St  Luke  iv.  10 :  ivreXeiTCu  rod  8ia<f)vXa£ai  ae.1 — 
airoirXeiv  in  the  New  Testament  is  exclusively  Lukan, 
vide  Acts  xiii.  4;  xiv.  26;  xx.  15. — cnrotrXeiv  et?  as  in 
Acts  xiii.  4  and  xiv.  26. — 'IraXlav  for  ''PcofjLtjv  as  Acts 
xviii.  2. — TraptSl&ovv]  The  use  of  the  imperfect  here  is 
peculiar;  it  is  perhaps  intended  to  express  that  the 
ship  came  from  elsewhere,  hence  St  Paul  and  the 
other  prisoners  embarked  while  the  ship  was  on  her 
voyage  {vide  Blass  on  this  verse).  The  delicate  use 
of  the  imperfect  is  not  rare  with  St  Luke,  and 
is  worthy  of  special  investigation.  In  the  "we"- 
sections  alone  are  found  40-50  imperfects  (apart  from 
imperfect  participles). — tov  re  UavXov  ical  riva?  erepovs 
Sec/mamas]  erepo?  is  a  word  of  which  St  Luke  is 
particularly  fond :  it  is  found  51  times  in  his 
writings  (never  in  St  Mark,  once  in  St  John).  In  com- 
bination with  Tt9  it  is  also  found  in  Acts  viii.  34 : 
eavrov  ri  irep\  eripov  tivo$. — eKarovTapxfl  ovofxam 
'lovXlw  cnrelpris  Se/SacrT*;?]  Other  passages  testify  to 
St  Luke's  fondness  for  introducing  numerous  subordinate 
personages  by  name,  and  that  just  in  this  way;  vide 
St  Luke  i.  5 ;  v.  27 ;  x.  38 ;  xvi.  20 ;  xix.  2 ;  xxiii.  50 ; 

1  Moulton  {Grammar,2  1908,  p.  218)  remarks  concerning  rod  c.  inf.  : 
1 '  Luke  supplies  two-thirds  of  the  total  for  the  New  Testament.  In  Luke 
we  have  23  exx.,  of  which  five  may  be  due  to  dependence  on  a  noun,  and 
about  one-half  seem  clearly  final ;  in  Acts  there  are  twenty-one  with  two 
adnominal  and  less  than  half  final.  .  .  .  Before  turning  to  grammatical 
detail  let  us  parenthetically  commend  the  statistics  just  given  to  the 
ingenious  analysts  who  reject  the  unity  of  the  Lucan  books.  The 
uniformity  of  use  is  very  marked  throughout  Luke  and  Acts :  cf. 
Acts  xxvii.  1  ( '  we  '-document)  with  xv.  20  ;  xx.  3  ;  Luke  xxi.  22  with 
Acts  ix.  15  ;  xx.  27  ('we '-document)  with  xiv.  18." 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR      17 

Acts  v.  1,  34 ;  viii.  9 ;  ix.  10,  11,  12,  33,  36 ;  x.  1 ;  xi. 
28;  xii.  13;  xvi.  1,  14;  xvii.  34;  xviii.  2,  7,  24;  xix. 
24 ;  xx.  9 ;  xxi.  10 ;  xxviii.  7,  where  ovofian  is  found 
in  each  case.  Again  he  here  expressly  adds  the  name 
of  the  aire'ipa.  We  may  compare  Acts  x.  12 :  avrjp  tis 
ovofiaTi  Ko/oj/^Xto?  eKaTOVTdpxw  **  cnrelptjg  rys  koXov- 
fjievr)?  'IraXiKr}?.  Except  in  these  two  passages  the 
name  of  a  airelpa  is  not  found  in  the  whole  New 
Testament,  and  how  similar  is  the  construction  of  the 
two  clauses ! 

Verse  2.  eirifiavTeq  Se  ttXocu)  ^ASpa/uvrrrivw]  €Tri(3alva) 
is,  with  the  exception  of  the  quotation  from  the  LXX.  in 
St  Matt.  xxi.  5,  absolutely  peculiar  to  the  Acts,  vide 
xx.  18  ;  xxi.  2,  4  ;  xxv.  1.  In  the  last  passage,  as  here, 
it  occurs  with  the  dative.  The  interest  which  is  shown 
even  in  such  details  as  the  name  of  a  ship  is  not  peculiar 
to  the  "  we  "-sections,  but  appears  also  in  other  parts 
of  the  book  if  St  Luke  was  in  the  position  to  satisfy 
it :  vide  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  pp.  49  ff. — fxiWovrt 
irXeiv  «V  tou?  Kara  Ttju  'Aulav  tottovs]  The  use  of 
fxeWeiv  (vide  Moulton  under  this  heading)  is  especially 
frequent  with  St  Luke  (47  times,  twice  in  St  Mark) ; 
/meXXetv  ea-eadai)  which  is  found  in  the  "  we  "-account 
xxvii.  10,  is  found  again  in  the  New  Testament  only  in 
Acts  xi.  28  and  xxi  v.  15  ! — The  simplex  irXetv  is  found 
once  in  the  "  we  "-sections,  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment only  in  St  Luke  viii.  23  and  Rev.  xviii.  17. — The 
expression  et?  t.  Kara  r.  'Aartav  tottov?  is  specifically 
Lukan :  vide  for  tottovs  Acts  xvi.  3 :  rovs  'IovSatov$ 
rot/?  ovTas  ev  rot?  tottois  €K€ivois,  for  Kara  t.  'Acrlav 
Acts  xi.  1  :    ol  ei>T€$  Kara  rhv  'lovSacav,  for  'Ada  in 

2 


18  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

the  sense  of  the  Roman  province  (so  everywhere  in  this 
book)  see  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  p.  91  f. 

avr/xQww]  Tne  word  is  wanting  in  St  Mark  and 
St  John,  it  occurs  once  in  both  St  Matthew  and  St 
Paul,  while  in  St  Luke's  writings  it  is  found  21  times. 
It  is  used  of  a  ship  not  only  in  the  "  we  "-account  but 
also  in  St  Luke  viii.  22  ;  Acts  xiii.  13  ;  xviii.  21. 

oVro?  crvv  fjixiv  'Apia-Tapxov  Ma/ce^o'vo?  Qeo-craXoweetos] 
vide  xxii.  9  :  ol  a-uv  e/uol  ovre<s  and  other  passages.  2ui/ 
is,  as  is  well  known,  a  rare  preposition  in  St  Matthew,  St 
Mark,  and  St  John ;  in  all  three  together  it  is  found 
only  10  times  (in  Q  not  at  all);  in  the  Lukan 
writings,  however,  77  times. — It  is  characteristic  of 
St  Luke  to  combine  city  and  province,  i.e.  to  be  care- 
ful to  give  the  name  of  the  province  together  with 
the  city ;  vide  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  pp.  59  ff. 
Twice,  indeed,  he  writes  Tapaeug  (Tot/ocro?)  rrj?  KtAt/aa? 
(xxi.  39 ;  xxii.  3).  This  is  more  remarkable  than 
the  present  passage,  because  in  it  Ma/te<5oVos  comes 
first. 

Verse  3.  t#  re  erepa  KaTrj\Bt]ixev  els  "EiSSwa]  This 
use  of  Te  for  the  continuation  of  the  narrative,  though 
not  to  be  found  in  St  Matthew,  St  Mark,  and  St  Luke, 
occurs  in  Acts  i.  15;  ii.  33,  37,  40;  iv.  13,  14,  33; 
v.  19 ;  xiii.  52 ;  and  in  very  many  other  passages. — 
t#  erepa  occurs  here  only;  for  in  xx.  15  it  is  most 
probable  that  ecnrepq.  should  be  read,  a  word  found  in 
the  New  Testament  only  in  the  "  we  "-sections,  in  the 
Acts  (iv.  3 ;  xxviii.  23),  and  in  the  gospel  of  St  Luke 
(xxiv.  29). — Karayeiv  is  found  with  St  Luke  (gospel  and 
Acts)   8  times,  elsewhere  in  the  New  Testament  only 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR      19 

Once  (Rom.  x.  6 :  rov  ILpicrrhv  Karayayeiv).  Also  in 
St  Luke  v.  11  it  is  used  of  a  ship  (Karayayovres  tcl 
TrXoia). 

(pikavQ '/ow7Tft>9  T€  6  'Ioi/Xto?  T&)  HavXw  xprjaafxevos 
eireTpeyjrev]  This  is  the  only  clause  in  the  first  three 
verses  of  chap,  xxvii.  which,  apart  from  the  use  of  re 
as  a  connective  in  the  narrative,  has  no  lexical  nor 
stylistic  kinship  with  the  rest  of  the  text  of  St  Luke. 

7rpo9  TOV9  <f>l\ov9  iropevQevri  e7r*/xeXe/a?  Tvyeiv\ 
HopevecrOai  is  a  very  favourite  word  with  St  Luke 
(88  times ;  in  St  Mark  it  is  wanting  altogether,  in  St 
Matthew  it  is  not  rare) ;  notice  also  the  Lukan  participle. 
For  <pl\ovs,  vide  xix.  21 ;  x.  34. — iirifiiXeia  only  here 
in  the  New  Testament,  but  it  is  with  St  Luke  alone  that 
we  find  eTTifxeXeia-dai  (St  Luke  x.  34  f.)  and  e7rf/*eXo)9 
(St  Luke  xv.  8). — rvyxdveiv  is  wanting  in  St  Matthew, 
St  Mark,  and  St  John ;  see  however  St  Luke  xx.  35 : 
tov  alwvo?  eiceivov  tvx^v,  Acts  xxiv.  3 :  7roXX^9  eiprivrj<} 
TvyxavovTes,  Acts  xxvi.  22 :  iiriKovplas  tvx&v.  In 
the  "  we  "-section  xxviii.  2  we  read:  ov  rr\v  rvxovaav 
<pi\av6pu>TTiav,  and  in  Acts  xix.  11 :  W/iei?  ov  Tay 
Tuxovtras  eiroiei  6  Qeo?. 

All  these  coincidences  are  found  in  the  small  compass 
of  three  verses  I  That  this  is  due  to  accident,  and  that 
through  accident  the  author  of  the  Acts  had  come  into 
the  possession  of  an  original  document  whose  style  and 
vocabulary  so  completely,  and  in  every  tiny  detail,  co- 
incided with  his  own,  is  an  impossible  assumption. 
Hence,  if  one  would  escape  from  the  admission  of 
identity,  there  remains  only  the  hypothesis  that  the 
author  has  entirely  recast  the  document  that  had  come 


20  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

into  his  hands.  But  what  were  the  words  of  this  docu- 
ment, and  what  could  have  led  the  editor  to  recast  a 
record  so  absolutely  simple  in  character  ?  No  !  everyone 
must  recognise  that  we  have  here  primary  narrative,  that 
there  has  been  here  no  working  up  nor  revision.  Thus 
the  author  of  the  "  we  "-account,  and  the  author  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  who  writes  in  exactly  the  same 
style  as  he,  are  one  and  the  same  person.  What  we 
have  been  able  to  demonstrate  from  these  three  verses 
can  be  also  shown  in  all  that  follows.  Of  course,  we 
must  not  make  absurd  demands  and  expect  to  find  the 
technical  terms  of  the  "  Shipwreck  "  in  the  sayings  of  our 
Lord,  or  in  the  narrative  of  His  life,  or  in  the  stories 
concerning  the  early  community  in  Jerusalem.  But 
wherever  a  passage  in  the  "  we  "-account  at  all  admits  of 
comparison,  parallels  with  the  Acts  and  the  Lukan 
gospel  at  once  make  their  appearance;  indeed,  as  the 
text  above  printed  shows,  there  are  only  few  verses  even 
in  the  story  of  the  Shipwreck  which  do  not  contain  one  or 
more  parallels !  Among  these  are  such  striking  instances 
as  verses  34,  35.  However,  still  more  impressive  than 
the  coincidences  in  vocabulary  are  the  coincidences  in 
delicate  characteristics  of  style  which  pervade  the  whole 
of  these  sections  ;  in  fact,  in  the  "  we  "-sections  the  author 
speaks  his  own  language  and  writes  in  his  usual  style  ; 1 
in  the  rest  of  the  work  just  so  much  of  this  style  makes 
its  appearance  as  was  allowed  by  the  nature  of  the  sources 

1  It  is  therefore  not  surprising  that  he  here  shows  himself  a  more 
cultivated  and  refined  writer  than  in  the  rest  of  the  work  where  either 
the  style  of  the  Septuagint  is  purposely  imitated  or  the  sources  are 
allowed  to  preserve  their  characteristics. 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR      21 

which  he  used  and  the  historical  and  religious  colouring 
which  he  aimed  at  imparting. 

One  of  the  weightiest  arguments  for  the  identity  of 
the  author  of  the  "  we "  -  sections  with  the  author  of 
the  twofold  work,  that  is,  for  its  composition  by  the 
physician  St  Luke,  is  the  demonstration  of  the  author's 
knowledge  of  and  interest  in  matters  of  medicine.  The 
instances  produced  first  of  all  by  Hobart,  and  then  by 
Zahn  and  myself,  have  been  assailed  by  P.  W.  Schmidt x 
and  Clemen.2  The  former  seeks  to  deprive  a  part  of 
them  of  their  force,  in  some  cases  perhaps  with  success ; 
and  yet  he  himself  allows  (S.  16  f.)  that :  "  A  good 
acquaintance  with  medical  science  and  terminology  may 
be  ascribed  to  '  Luke.' "  3  This  is  quite  enough  for  my 
purpose.  One  of  a  sceptical  turn  of  mind  may  with 
reason  dispute  that  the  author  of  the  Acts  was  a 
practising  physician.  If  he,  however,  admits  that  this 
author  possessed  a  good  acquaintance  with  medical 
science  and  terminology,  then  the  unanimous  tradition 
that  the  author  was  Luke  the  physician  receives  the 
strongest  support ;  for  to  what  other  Christian  writer 
of  the  first  two  centuries  can  we  ascribe  such  good 
acquaintance  ?  To  none  that  I  know  of.  Certainly 
it  is  possible  that  even  a  layman  —  Schmidt  lays 
stress  upon  this  point — could  have  been  interested 
in  medical  matters  and  have  possessed  good  medical 

1  Loc.  tit.,  S.  6-18. 

2  Loc.  tit.,  pp.  785  ff. 

3  Schmidt  describes  this  as  the  most  that  can  be  said  in  this 
connection. 


22   THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

information ;  but  is  it  permissible  to  assume  a  well- 
informed  layman  of  this  kind,  when  tradition  with  all 
explicitness  names  a  physician  ?  That  would  indeed 
be  a  rare  freak  of  chance  !  Clemen  makes  even  further 
admissions.  In  set  terms  he  allows  :  "  that  the  author 
of  the  '  we  ""-sections  was  a  physician  can  be  regarded  as 
probable.''1  When,  however,  he  continues,  "but  that 
such  a  one  was  the  compiler  of  the  whole  book  of  Acts 
and  of  the  third  gospel,  is  very  improbable,"  he  has 
not  considered  that  those  very  instances  which  speak 
in  favour  of  the  medical  interest  and  information  of 
the  author  are  more  weakly  represented  in  the  "  we1- 
sections  than  in  the  rest  of  the  work.  If  the  author  of 
the  "  we  "-sections  is  a  physician,  then  much  more  is  the 
author  of  the  whole  twofold  work ;  both,  indeed,  are 
physicians,  because  they  are  only  a  single  person. 
Hence,  even  taking  together  the  half  admissions  of 
these  two  scholars,  it  follows  that  the  autor  ad  Theo- 
philum  was  a  physician,  and  that  the  tradition  is  there- 
fore justified.  In  conclusion,  among  other  objections 
I  have  heard  it  said  that  one  does  not  even  know  that 
St  Luke  was  a  physician ;  some  would  have  him  to  have 
been  a  painter.  I  refrain  from  refuting  this  argument ; 
for  it  sets  the  record  of  St  Paul,  the  contemporary  and 
friend  of  St  Luke,  on  a  line  with  an  obscure  Byzantine 
legend. 

I  must,  however,  touch  upon  a  very  unmethodical 
and  —  I  cannot  describe  it  otherwise  —  thoughtless 
objection  of  Clemen.  He  writes  (p.  786)  that  I  have 
started  from  false  premises,  since  in  dealing  with  the 
"  we  "-source  I  have  confined  myself  to  those  sections  in 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR      23 

which  the  "  we ""  occurs,  while  from  the  way  in  which 
these  sections  make  their  entrance  and  exit  in  the  book 
we  can  conclude  with  certainty  that  the  source  must 
have  been  more  comprehensive  and  must  also  have 
included  verses  in  which  the  "  we  "  does  not  occur ;  "  so 
one  of  the  two  objects  Harnack  compares  with  each 
other  is  to  be  circumscribed  otherwise."  It  is  a  matter 
of  controversy  whether  the  "  we  ""-sections  form  a  source 
at  all ;  it  is,  however,  a  still  more  disputable  question, 
or  rather  a  question  involved  in  hopeless  obscurity,  how 
far  this  source,  if  there  were  such  a  source,  extends.  It 
is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge  that  some  scholars, 
in  spite  of  the  absence  of  the  "  we,"  include  in  it  almost 
the  whole  second  half  of  the  Acts.  But  how  can  a  man, 
who  does  not  believe  in  the  source  at  all,  extend  its 
boundary  beyond  the  occurrence  of  the  "  we "  ?  This 
would  be  a  more  difficult  task  for  him  than  the  squaring 
of  the  circle !  Neither  can  he  attach  himself  to  any 
hypothesis,  which  has  gained  a  fair  amount  of  accept- 
ance, concerning  the  extent  of  the  supposed  source, 
seeing    that    no    such    hypothesis    exists.1      Hence    it 

1  Compare  the  guesses  of  Overbeck,  Pfleiderer,  v.  Soden,  Clemen, 
and  many  others  concerning  the  extent  of  the  supposed  ' '  we  "-source, 
and  note  how  widely  they  differ.  P.  W.  Schmidt  himself  is  not  in  agree- 
ment with  Overbeck's  idea  of  the  source,  and  confines  it  within  much 
more  modest  bounds  (S.  46).  He  too  repeats  the  assertion  that  the 
abrupt  character  of  the  entrance  of  the  "  we  "  proves  that  a  source  here 
makes  its  appearance  (S.  45).  But  the  question  really  stands  thus : 
the  absolute  abruptness  of  the  entrance  and  exit  of  the  yfieTs  is  in  any 
case  a  strange  and  perplexing  fact  (yet  in  xvi.  10,  on  closer  considera- 
tion, the  entrance  is  not  altogether  abrupt).  But  it  is  not  to  be  seen 
why  it  is  less  objectionable  to  suppose  that  upon  each  occasion  some 
source  makes  its  appearance  than  to  suppose  that  the  author  who  was 
present  at  the  given  time  abruptly  introduces  himself  as  an  eyewitness. 


24  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

was  not  only  correct  in  method,  but  also  the  only 
possible  course,  to  bring  together  only  those  passages 
where  the  "we"  actually  occurs.  All  else  that  could 
be  done  I  have  already  done,  seeing  that,  in  my  in- 
vestigation of  the  vocabulary  of  the  "  we  "-sections  in 
relation  to  the  whole  work,  I  have  distinguished  be- 
tween the  first  and  second  halves  of  the  Acts ;  vide 
Luke  the  Physician,  pp.  67  ff.  Clemen  ought  to 
have  noticed  this.  He  would  then  also  have  seen  that 
the  relation  of  the  "  we  "-source  to  the  first  half  of  the 
work  is  not  essentially  different  from  its  relation  to  the 
second  half;  so  that  even  if  we  extend  the  source  con- 
siderably beyond  the  limits  of  the  actual  "  we  "-sections, 
the  close  relationship  with  the  whole  work  and  with 
the  gospel  of  St  Luke  remains  unaffected.  Just  as,  in 
the  investigation  of  Q,  I  confined  myself  strictly  to 
those  passages  which,  apart  from  Markan  sections,  are 
common  to  St  Matthew  and  St  Luke,  because  otherwise 
all   certainty   vanishes,1   so   also   in   dealing   with  the 

The  former  hypothesis  is  to  me  much  more  doubtful  and  objectionable, 
especially  when  one  must  assume  that  the  author  has  thoroughly  re- 
vised the  source  and  yet  has  allowed  the  "we"  to  remain.  In  this 
case,  indeed,  it  is  difficult  to  suppress  a  suspicion  of  intentional  decep- 
tion. Schmidt,  it  is  true,  will  have  nothing  to  do  with  an  hypothesis 
of  editorial  transformation  (S.  46  :  "apart  from  perhaps  one  sentence, 
xxviii.  8,  no  evidence  can  be  adduced  that  Luke  has  anywhere  [!  !] 
exercised  even  a  modifying  influence  upon  the  '  we  '-sections'') ;  in  form- 
ing such  an  opinion  he  cannot  have  realised  the  force  of  the  argument 
from  language  and  style. 

1  But  even  for  this  I  have  been  found  fault  with  by  those  critics 
among  whom  there  is  slight  recognition  of  the  fact  that  in  these 
matters  the  first  consideration  of  all  is  to  find  firm  foothold  and  to  pro- 
duce real  evidence  instead  of  working  in  a  fog  of  uncertainties.  Such 
critics,  however,  are,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  in  the  majority. 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR      25 

supposed  "  we  "-source  I  am  compelled  to  confine  my- 
self strictly  to  the  "  we."  The  difference  consists  only 
in  this,  that  both  in  St  Matthew  and  St  Luke  there  are 
certainly  other  sections  which  come  from  Q  (only  they 
cannot  be  distinguished  with  certainty),  while  the  "  we  **- 
source  cannot  have  contained  more  than  the  "  we  *- 
sections,  because  it  is  nothing  but  a  phantom. 

The  most  plausible  argument  for  the  distinction  of 
the  "  we"- sections  from  the  complete  work  is,  after  all, that 
tone,  that  nuance  of  historical  sobriety  and  actuality, 
which  distinguishes  these  sections  more  especially  from 
the  first  half  of  the  book.1  All  that  can  be  advanced 
in  this  connection  has  been  collected  together  in  my  Acts 
of  the  Apostles,  chap.  iv.  pp.  133  fF.,  141  ff.,  and  144  ff. 
But  I  have  there  also  shown  that  a  criticism  of  this 
kind  applies  to  those  parts  of  the  second  half  of  the 
Acts,  in  which  the  "  we  "  is  wanting,  with  much  more 
force  than  to  the  "  we  "-sections.  I  can  therefore  only 
repeat  what  I  have  already  stated  summarily  at  p.  143 
of  the  work  just  mentioned:  St  Luke — whose  own 
"  we  "-account  shows  him  to  have  been  a  physician 
endowed  with  miraculous  gifts — possessed  for  the  first 
half  of  the  Acts  a  source,  or  sources  (oral  or  written), 
which  was  congenial  to  his  own  peculiar  temperament — 
indeed,  in  this  direction  went  even  further  than  himself. 

1  One  might  also  add  the  nuance  of  meagreness  and  brevity  which 
distinguishes  them  from  the  other  passages  of  the  last  third  of  the  book, 
were  not  the  "shipwreck"  dealt  with  in  such  striking  fulness.  The 
long,  and  to  a  great  extent  identical,  speeches  of  the  last  quarter  of  the 
book  must  proceed  from  some  purpose  of  the  author  which  we  cannot 
fathom  quite  satisfactorily. 


26  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

On  the  other  hand,  for  the  second  half  he  did  not 
possess  such  sources  (with  the  exception  of  what  is 
told  us  of  Ephesus),  but  only,  so  far  as  he  was  not  him- 
self an  eyewitness,  had  at  his  disposal  simple  records, 
into  which  he  has  inserted  nothing  except  two  con- 
ventional accounts  of  visions  (xviii.  8  ff. ;  xxiii.  10  ff.), 
which  illustrate  the  development  of  the  plot.  It  cannot 
be  otherwise;  for  if  he  himself  had  introduced  the 
supernatural  element  into  chapters  i.-xv.,  it  is  unin- 
telligible why  he  should  have  refrained  from  doing  the 
same  thing  in  the  second  half,  except,  or  almost  only 
except,  where  he  himself  was  an  eyewitness.  That  the 
parts  of  the  narrative  where  the  colouring  is  most 
sober  are  not  the  "  we  "-sections,  but  the  accounts  of 
St  Paul's  visits  to  Thessalonica,  Bercea,  Athens,  Corinth, 
Jerusalem  (the  last  visit),  Csesarea,  and  Rome,  is  a 
convincing  proof  that  his  narrative  is  kept  in  close 
accordance  with  sources  of  information.  The  crasser 
traits  in  the  first  half  of  the  work  (vide  pp.  144  ff.)  are 
explained  by  the  crasser  calibre  of  the  sources.  An 
historian,  however,  who  clearly  enough  wishes  us  to 
regard  the  story  of  Eutychus  as  an  instance  of  resurrec- 
tion from  the  dead,  and  the  story  of  St  Paul  and 
the  serpent  likewise  as  a  miracle  (and  yet  in  either  case 
shrinks  from  tampering  with  the  facts  themselves),  who, 
moreover,  represents  the  Apostle  in  the  Shipwreck  as 
prophet  in  the  popular  sense — such  an  one  could  very 
well,  indeed  with  special  pleasure,  relate  crass  things 
such  as  those  we  read  in  the  first  half  of  the  Acts.  We 
ought  not,  of  course,  to  overlook  the  difference  in  the 
miraculous  accounts  as  given  in  the  "we "-sections  and  the 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR      27 

first  half  of  the  book ;  still  less,  however,  ought  we  to 
forget  the  strong  agreement  wherein  they  are  bound 
together ;  see  above  all,  chap,  xxvii.  22-26. 

The  gulf  which  divides  the  author  of  the  "  we  "-accounts 
from  the  author  of  the  whole  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  is  not 
wider  than  the  gulf  which  yawns  between  Eusebius  the 
chronicler  of  the  first  books  of  the  Ecclesiastical  History 
and  Eusebius  the  sober-minded  historian ;  it  is  in  my 
opinion  considerably  less  wide,  and  yet  the  ultimate 
ground  for  reluctance  in  recognising  the  unity  of  the 
Acts  and  the  "  we  "-account  is  to  be  found  in  the  gulf 
which  yawns  between  the  first  chapters  of  the  work  and 
the  "  we  ""-account — a  gulf  which  it  is  thought  cannot  be 
bridged  over.  I  can  only  repeat  that  the  gulf  that  lies 
between  chaps,  xvi.-xxviii.,  minus  the  "  we  ""-sections,  and 
chaps,  i.-v.  is  considerably  wider.  The  elasticity  and 
play  of  feeling  which  we  recognise  and  do  not  regard  as 
out  of  place,  not  only  in  such  authors  as  Eusebius  and 
Sulpicius  Severus,  but  even  in  a  Livy  and  Tacitus,  we 
must  also  allow  to  such  an  one  as  St  Luke.  Baur's 
criticism  has  brought  us  much  that  is  valuable,  but  it 
has  not  escaped  the  danger  of  making  the  writers  of  the 
New  Testament,  one  and  all,  merely  types,  with  the 
consequence  that  a  less  rigid  view  must  appear  as 
wanting  in  logical  accuracy,  if  not  as  something  worse. 
As  a  result,  either  the  authors  were  driven  into  exile 
out  of  their  own  period,  or  their  works  were  condemned 
to  amputation  and  mutilation.  This  danger  has  in 
essential  points  been  removed  through  the  advance  of 
science ;  yet  there  still  remains  a  disposition  to  conceive 
of  a  writer  of  the  New  Testament  as  more  of  a  type 


28  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

and  to  make  more  stringent  demands  upon  his  con- 
sistency— and  even  upon  his  conscientiousness,  inward 
integrity,  and  intellectual  constancy  —  than  human 
nature  can  bear,  and  than  the  spirit  and  circumstances 
of  the  times  allowed. 

The  unanimous  tradition  that  St  Luke  is  the  author 
of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  has  come  to  us  with  the 
book  itself.1  Besides  the  acquaintance  which  the  author 
of  the  third  gospel  and  the  Acts  shows  with  medical 
subjects,  this  tradition  is  supported  by  the  following 
considerations,  which  I  have  developed  in  greater  detail 
elsewhere  {Luke  the  Physician,  pp.  12  ff.). 

1.  St  Luke  is  nowhere  mentioned  by  name  in  the 
Acts,  which  is  just  what  we  should  expect  if  he  himself 
were  the  author  of  the  book.  On  the  other  hand, 
Aristarchus,  who  appears  in  the  Epistles  of  St  Paul  side 
by  side  with  St  Luke,  is  thrice  mentioned  by  name. 
Why  is  St  Luke  left  out  ?  2  For  one  who  is  assured  of 
the  Lukan  authorship  the  answer  is  very  simple,  for  one 
who  opposes  that  view  it  is  not  an  altogether  easy  one. 

2.  St  Luke  was,  according  to  St  Paul,  a  Greek, 
belonging  to  the  middle  plane  of  culture ;  so  was  the 
author  of  this  great  historical  work. 

1  Even  if  the  tradition  were  false,  it  could  not  have  arisen  later  than 
the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  and  then  only  through  correction  of 
the  original  title  ;  for,  as  the  dedication  shows,  the  work  was  not 
anonymous.  This  consideration  makes  it  difficult  to  believe  that  the 
title  Kara  AovKav  is  mistaken. 

2  The  omission  of  Titus— who  is  the  only  other  person  we  should 
expect  to  find  mentioned  in  the  Acts — is  not  so  strange,  because  he 
is  not  elsewhere  mentioned  with  St  Luke.  Moreover,  Titus  was  not 
in  such  an  independent  position  as  St  Luke  in  relation  to  St  Paul. 


THE   IDENTITY   OF  THE   AUTHOR      29 

3.  St  Luke,  according  to  St  Paul's  epistles,  was  at 
times  the  Apostle's  companion ;  so  was  the  author  of 
the  Acts,  and  both  were  with  St  Paul  in  Rome,  whither 
he  came  with  only  two  companions.  Again,  judging 
from  the  Pauline  epistles,  it  is  improbable  that  St  Luke 
was  with  St  Paul  when  he  wrote  the  epistles  to  the 
Thessalonians,  the  Corinthians,  and  the  Romans.  From 
the  Acts  we  deduce  that  the  author  was  not  at  that  time 
in  the  Apostle's  company. 

4.  The  author  of  the  third  gospel  was  acquainted 
with  the  gospel  of  St  Mark ;  we  know  from  the  Pauline 
epistles  that  St  Luke  and  St  Mark  were  sometimes 
together  (wherever  in  the  Pauline  epistles  St  Luke's 
name  is  found,  there  also  we  find  the  name  of  St  Mark). 
The  author  of  the  Acts  actually  knows  the  name  of  a 
maid-servant  in  St  Mark's  house. 

5.  St  Luke,  according  to  the  testimony  of  St  Paul, 
was  not  only  his  companion  but  also  his  "fellow- worker" 
(thus  not  simply  a  serving  brother,  like  Timothy). 
From  the  Acts  we  deduce  (xvi.  10,  13)  that  its  author 
was  an  active  missionary,  working  together  with  St 
Paul  in  a  position  of  some  independence. 

6.  St  Luke,  according  to  good  tradition,  belonged 
to  an  Antiochian  family ;  the  author  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  as  appears  from  his  work,  stood  in  an 
especially  close  relationship  with  Antioch,  and  most 
probably  made  use  of  a  source  which  had  its  origin  in 
that  city. — Of  these  arguments  only  a  few  refer  to  the 
"  we  "-sections  alone. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  CHIEF  ARGUMENT  AGAINST  THE  LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP 
OF  THE  ACTS :  JEWISH  CHRISTIANITY  (JUDAISM),  ST 
PAUL   AND   ST   LUKE 

The  following  are  the  principal  arguments  that  are 
generally  adduced  against  the  composition  of  the  Acts 
by  St  Luke : — 

1.  Numerous  discrepancies  and  blunders  in  historical 
details,  such  as  cannot  be  ascribed  to  a  companion 
of  St  Paul,  even  if  he  were  only  at  times  in  the  company 
of  the  Apostle. 

2.  The  representation  of  the  Council  of  Jerusalem 
and  of  the  Apostolic  Decree  (contrast  Gal.  ii.). 

3.  The  portraiture  of  St  Paul,  unsatisfactory  in 
general  and  incorrect  in  particular,  in  so  far  as  it 
assigns  to  the  Apostle  an  attitude  towards  Jewish 
Christianity  (Judaism)  which  is  inconsistent  with  that 
of  his  epistles. 

Of  these  arguments  I  have  thoroughly  investigated 
the  first  partly  in  my  first  study,  Luke  the  Physician, 
partly  in  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles  >  pp.  203  ff.,  and  I  hope 
that  it  may  pass  as  refuted.  I  have  shown  that  St 
Luke,  with  all  his  general  excellence  as  an  historian,  was 

30 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS    31 

careless  and  negligent  in  details  of  narrative,  and  has 
thus  to  answer  for  many  discrepancies  of  smaller  or 
greater  importance.  The  real  mistakes,  however,  never 
go  so  far  as  to  make  it  no  longer  possible  to  maintain 
that  the  writer  was  an  occasional  companion  of  St 
Paul.  We  must  assume  that  only,  or  almost  only,  in 
those  parts  of  his  work  where  the  "  we "  occurs  was  St 
Luke  an  eyewitness  of  what  he  records,  so  that  in  all 
the  rest  of  his  narrative  he  was  dependent  upon  written 
or  oral  information.  The  mere  employment  of  these 
sources  would  produce  discrepancies  —  even  in  the 
second  half  of  the  work, — abbreviations  of  the  narrative 
leading  to  obscurity,  and  so  forth,  which  are  the  less 
remarkable  seeing  that  they  are  not  wanting  even  in 
the  "  we  ""-sections.  However,  these  mistakes,  which  are 
for  the  most  part  harmless,  even  though  they  are  often 
gross  blunders,  do  not  as  a  whole  avail  to  alter  our 
judgment  concerning  the  value  of  the  narrative  and 
concerning  the  personality  of  the  historian  ;  even  though 
we  must  deplore  that  he  had  not  at  his  disposal  better 
authorities  for  the  first  half  of  his  work,  that  his  plan 
excluded  very  many  things  about  which  we  should  gladly 
have  been  informed,  and  that  he  loves  nothing  better 
than  to  tell  the  wonders  of  Christian  Science. 

As  for  the  second  argument,  it  has  been  dealt  with 
in  detail  in  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  pp.  248-263. 
Together  with  Hilgenfeld  and  Resch  jun.,  I  en- 
deavoured to  show  that  the  authorities  of  the  Western 
Text  present  the  original  version  of  the  Apostolic 
Decree,  and  that,  if  this  is  true,  the  historical  difficulty, 
which  this  decree  has  hitherto  presented,  now  vanishes. 


32  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

My  exposition  has  met  with  only  slight  approval ; l 
but  I  cannot  see  that  it  has  been  disproved.  The 
interpretation  of  the  decree,  as  if  it  were  concerned 
with  regulations  about  meats,  makes  shipwreck  upon 
the  simple  fact  that  St  Luke,  in  Acts  xv.,  puts  into 
the  mouth  of  no  less  an  one  than  St  James  the  words 
that  "Moses"  need  not  be  imposed  upon  the  Gentile 
Christians,  seeing  that  he  had  continually  his  observa- 
tores  among  the  circumcised.  "  Moses  "  surely  implies 
laws  concerning  meats.  Again,  the  imposition  of  laws 
concerning  meats  would  then  only  have  significance  if 
it  were  a  question  of  establishing  communion  and 
fellowship  between  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians. 
But  nothing  is  said  of  this  either  in  Acts  xv.  or 
Gal.  ii.  The  point  in  controversy  was  simply  the 
recognition  of  the  principle  of  a  mission  to  the  Gentiles 
without  the  imposition  of  the  yoke  of  the  Law  upon 
the  converted.  To  receive  this  recognition  it  was 
necessary  that  the  Gentile  Christians  should  observe 
the  fundamental  laws  of  morality.  But  I  cannot 
here  repeat  all  that  I  wrote  three  years  ago.  How- 
ever,   even    supposing    that    I    was    mistaken,    there 

1  Schiirer  (Theol.  Lit.  Ztg.,  1908,  col.  175),  P.  W.  Schmidt  (loe.  cit., 
S.  18  ff.),  Clemen  (loc.  cit.,  pp.  794  ff.),  Sanday,  Bacon,  Diehl,  Bousset, 
etc.,  have  declared  against  me.  I  imagine  that  I  have  shown  (Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  pp.  248  ff. )  that  the  Apostolic  Decree  alone  here  stands  in 
question  (the  rest  of  the  description  of  the  Apostolic  Council  in  Acts 
xv. ,  be  its  mistakes  many  or  few,  could  very  well  have  proceeded  from 
a  later  companion  of  St  Paul).  On  this  point  many  scholars  who  find 
the  decree  itself  a  stumbling-block  are  at  one  with  me.  Finally, 
the  Apostolic  Epistle  is  also  not  in  question.  Even  Blass  admits  that 
in  it  St  Luke  himself  has  summarised  the  chief  points,  a  procedure 
which  was  open  to  the  historian  of  antiquity. 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS     38 

arises,  it  is  true,  a  certain  doubt  as  to  St  Luke's 
authorship ;  but  a  negative  decision,  in  face  of  all  the 
evidence  that  speaks  for  St  Luke,  as  well  as  in  itself, 
is  altogether  too  precipitate.  In  the  first  place,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  words  of  Acts  xv.  28 
(fxr/Sev  7r\6ov  eTriTiOeudai  v/xiv  fSapos  TrXrjv  tovtcov  twv 
iirdvayices)  presuppose  that  those  addressed  were 
already  bearing  this  burden.  Next,  I  refer  on  the  one 
hand  to  Zahn,  Einleitung,  ii.,  S.  437  if.,  whose  remarks 
concerning  the  scope  of  the  decree  in  its  Western  form 
(which  he  regards  as  original)  deserve  all  consideration, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  what  I  myself  have  written 
in  answer  to  Schurer  (Theol  Lit.  Ztg.,  1906,  col.  467).. 
(1)  Concerning  the  more  intimate  relationship  of  St  Luke 
with  St  Paul  in  theological  views,  nothing  is  known 
to  us ;  we  only  know  that  he  makes  his  appearance 
in  St  Paul's  company  as  from  the  first  a  relatively 
independent  evangelist.  To  what  extent  he  shared  St 
Paul's  peculiar  views  can  be  learned  only  from  his  own 
works.  The  common  assumption  that  a  companion 
of  St  Paul  must  be  pictured  simply  according  to  the 
pattern  of  the  master  is  without  any  basis,  and  is 
doubly  reprehensible  in  the  case  of  a  Gentile  of  no 
slight  culture,  who  already,  before  his  conversion  to 
Christianity,  was  in  touch  with  the  Synagogue.  Tatian 
was  a  disciple  of  Justin,  and  mentions  Justin  with  the 
highest  praise  in  the  very  work  which  shows  us  how 
far  in  teaching  he  is  removed  from  his  master.  (2) 
When  St  Luke  wrote,  the  ecclesiastical  situation  was 
different  from  what  it  was  at  the  time  of  the  Apostolic 
Council  and   the   Epistle  to   the   Galatians.     (3)  We 


84  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

have  no  means  of  knowing  what  kind  of  reports 
other  than  information  derived  from  St  Paul,  St  Luke 
possessed  concerning  the  Council,  nor  what  was  the 
bias  of  his  authorities.  St  Luke  in  all  probability 
described  that  event  just  as  ancient  historians  again 
and  again  describe  controversies  of  the  past — that  is, 
from  the  standpoint  of  their  own  times.  What  he  puts 
into  the  mouth  of  St  Peter  and  St  James  is  in  part 
at  least  very  appropriate;  but  there  is  absolutely  no 
reason  why  the  author,  even  though  a  companion  of 
St  Paul,  should  not  have  invented  it.  He  did  not, 
at  all  events,  invent  the  central  fact  that  the  leaders 
on  both  sides  came  to  an  agreement  that  was  tempor- 
arily satisfactory,  and  that  the  mission  to  the  Gentiles 
was  thus  recognised ;  for  here  we  have  also  the 
testimony  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  Acts  xv. 
is  not  to  be  regarded  as  a  protocol  nor  is  the  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians ;  indeed,  the  account  given  in  this 
epistle,  written  in  all  the  agitation  of  soul  of  an 
insulted  apostle  and  an  injured  father,  and  glowing 
with  passionate  indignation,  not  against  the  Primitive 
Apostles  but  against  those  who  were  disturbing  the 
peace  of  the  Galatian  church,  is  anything  rather  than 
a  perfect  record ;  and,  in  spite  of  its  complete  trust- 
worthiness in  main  points,  it  gives  absolutely  no 
description  of  the  course  of  the  conferences  which 
led  up  to  the  verdict,  and  offers  no  guarantee  that 
important  circumstances  of  secondary  rank  have  not  been 
left  unmentioned.  Without  in  the  least  degree  im- 
peaching the  integrity  of  the  Apostle,  one  may  also 
ask  whether  the  relation  of  rank  in  which  St  Paul 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS     35 

stood  to  the  Primitive  Apostles,  as  actually  expressed  in 
the  negotiations  of  the  Council,  was  quite  what  St  Paul 
himself  regards  it  in  Gal.  i.  1  ff.  He  himself  writes  in 
chap.  ii.  2 :  fxr\  ttux}  elg  icevov  Tpe\(a  rj  eSpa/uov.  P.  W. 
Schmidt  (Joe.  cit.9  S.  26),  indeed,  in  his  anxiety  lest  St 
Paul  the  hero  and  the  saint  should  suffer  detriment  in 
a  single  trait  of  his  character,  cries :  "  Where  else  in 
the  epistles  has  an  emotion  snatched  the  reins  from  the 
hand  of  St  Paul ! "  In  the  face  of  not  a  few  passages 
of  the  Pauline  epistles  I  cannot  join  in  this  exclamation. 
But  to  very  many  scholars  the  third  seems  to  be  the 
decisive  argument  against  the  composition  of  the  Acts 
by  St  Luke.  Just  as  in  days  gone  by,  Baur,  Hausrath, 
and  others  advanced  it  with  the  strongest  emphasis 
("it  is  more  credible  that  Calvin  on  his  death-bed 
should  have  vowed  a  golden  dress  to  the  Mother  of 
God  than  that  St  Paul  should  have  acted  in  this 
fashion"),  so  now  it  is  thrust  forward  as  the  greatest 
obstacle  to  be  surmounted.  Thus  Schiirer  (Lit.  Ztg.y 
1906,  col.  408)  writes :  "  No  companion  of  St  Paul 
could  have  put  into  the  Apostle's  mouth  the  statement 
that  he  was  accused  because  of  the  hope  of  the  Resur- 
rection (xxiii.  6),  or  because  of  the  hope  of  the  promise 
given  to  the  fathers  (xxvi.  6) ;  the  companion  of  St 
Paul  (who  wrote  the  "  we  "-account)  knew  that  the 
reason  of  the  imprisonment  was  quite  different."  Again 
(loc.  cit.,  1908,  col.  176):  "Can  we  really  believe  that 
a  well-informed  companion  of  St  Paul  could  have  put 
into  his  mouth  the  gross  untruth  of  chaps,  xxiii.  6  and 
xxvi.  6  ?  From  the  more  accurate  report  of  xxi.  27  ff., 
we  know  that  the  reasons  were  quite  otherwise."     P.  W. 


36  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Schmidt  is  still  more  pronounced.  He  rejects  the 
narratives  of  the  circumcision  of  Timothy,  of  the  vows 
which,  according  to  the  Acts,  St  Paul  undertook,  etc. ; 
he  asserts  with  Overbeck  that  a  "  dogmatic  Judaising " 
of  St  Paul  pervades  the  Acts.  Then  he  proceeds  (S. 
33):  "In  all  important  points  Overbeck  has  pointed 
out  the  most  obvious  and  surest  way  towards  a  purely 
scientific  criticism  of  the  Lukan  work  [what  else  does 
any  of  us  wish  for  ?].  On  the  other  hand,  in  so  far  as 
the  attempt  of  Harnack  to  enhance  the  historical 
reputation  of  the  Acts  is  really  successful,  there  in- 
evitably follows  a  corresponding  depreciation  of  the 
historical  value  of  the  Pauline  epistles.  The  only 
school  of  criticism  which  could  rejoice  in  such  a  result 
of  the  investigation  of  the  Lukan  writings  would  be  the 
school  that  would  banish  the  Pauline  epistles  into  the 
second  century  into  the  company  of  Marcion." 

Similarly,  but  still  more  decidedly,  writes  Jiilicher 
(Neue  Linien  i.  d.  Kritik  d.  evangel.  Oberlief,  1906, 
S.  59  f.) :  "  If  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  really  correct  in 
its  portraiture  of  St  Paul,  if  this  colourless  rhetorical 
representative  of  average  Christianity  is  the  genuine 
Paul,  then  I  can  no  longer  resist  the  baleful  attraction 
[what  attraction  can  there  be  ?]  of  the  hypothesis  pro- 
claimed by  the  school  of  Leyden :  that  Paul  the  great 
epistolary  writer  is  a  later  fiction,  an  ideal  form,  which 
an  unknown  artist  has  elevated  upon  eagle's  wings  out 
of  the  lowly  circumstances  of  the  real  Paul  into  heavenly 
heights.  .  .  .  Those,  however,  for  whom  the  Paul  of 
the  four  great  epistles  abides  the  most  certain,  the  most 
unimpeachable  thing  in  the  whole  New  Testament,  must 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    37 

describe  the  portraiture  of  St  Paul  in  the  Acts  as  woefully 
deficient  and  poor,  just  because  it  preserves  absolutely 
nothing  of  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  man :  and 
if  one  who  for  many  years  was  a  companion,  a  friend, 
indeed  a  fellow -worker  of  St  Paul — as  was  St  Luke — in 
spite  of  the  multitude  of  reminiscences  which  even  in 
unimportant  matters  stood  at  his  disposal,  and  in  a 
writing  where  a  picture  of  the  genuine  Paul  was  above 
all  things  called  for — if  such  a  one  could  not  introduce 
into  his  portrait  even  one  of  the  grand  and  noble 
characteristics  of  the  Apostle,  then  indeed  it  is  alto- 
gether vain  to  expect,  or  even  to  cherish  a  modest 
hope,  that  the  Gospel  historians,  who  depend  entirely 
upon  the  testimony  of  others,  present  us  with  anything 
more  than  notices  concerning  external  events  in  the  life  of 
our  Lord  and  an  artificial  scheme  of  His  ministry :  how 
can  we  expect  to  receive  from  them  genuine  words  from 
the  lips  of  Jesus,  or  to  feel  through  them  the  breath  of 
His  spirit  pass  upon  us !  If  one  of  St  Paul's  most 
intimate  friends  tells  us  (Acts  xxi.  20  ffl),  without  the 
slightest  hesitation,  that  the  Apostle  when  in  Jerusalem 
was  ready,  merely  for  the  sake  of  peace  and  by  a  pre- 
meditated and  elaborate  act  of  hypocrisy,  to  convince  the 
Jews  that  he  walked  now  as  before  in  strict  observance 
of  the  Law ;  and  if  this  piece  of  information,  alleged  to 
be  given  by  a  friend  who  must  have  known  St  Paul's 
real  attitude  towards  the  Law,  deserves  to  be  described 
as  good  tradition,  then  all  trust  in  an  intelligent  trans- 
mission of  actual  history  in  the  Primitive  Church  sinks 
to  nothing,  and  we  can  no  longer  oppose  with  confidence 
the  negation  even  of  the  best-attested  statements.11 


38  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOFPIC  GOSPELS 

I  could  wish  that  Julicher  had  not  written  these 
words  ;  for  while  on  the  one  hand  they  show  a  want  of 
circumspection  and  accuracy  of  thought,  and  moreover 
introduce  considerations  that  are  alien  to  dispassionate 
judgment,  on  the  other  hand  they  are  an  echo  of  the 
criticism  of  Baur,  Lipsius,  and  Hausrath,  which  in  this 
point  ought  to  be  regarded  as  superseded.  Seeing, 
however,  that  such  distinguished  scholars  of  the  present 
day  repeat  the  apprehensions  which  Ludemann  often 
expressed  more  than  twenty  years  ago,  when  he  asserted 
that  my  view  of  history  (in  my  History  of  Dogma)  led 
straight  to  the  rejection  of  the  genuineness  of  the 
Pauline  epistles,  it  must  be  necessary  to  submit  the 
point  which  gives  rise  to  these  apprehensions  to  a  close 
examination.  Of  course,  my  opponents  are  as  far  as 
myself  from  allowing  "consequences''1  to  affect  their 
recognition  of  the  truth  of  any  question,  and  this 
reference  to  "consequences11  it  were  better  to  leave 
altogether  out  of  consideration,  because — apart  from 
the  shifting  of  standpoint  that  may  easily  be  discovered 
in  the  argument — these  consequences  absolutely  do  not 
exist.  Must  the  epistles  of  St  Paul  be  spurious  because 
he  found  in  his  companion  St  Luke  a  poor  or,  as  far  as 
my  argument  is  concerned,  even  an  untrustworthy 
biographer?  What  kind  of  logic  is  this?  Where, 
however,  St  Paul  himself,  rightly  interpreted  from  his 
own  epistles,  really  stands  opposed  to  St  Luke — when 
have  I  ever  given  occasion  to  anyone  to  imagine  that  in 
such  a  case  I  should  demand  that  the  latter  rather  than 
the  former  ought  to  be  believed  ?  But  the  real  question 
is  this,  whether  St  Paul,  on  the  point  here  in  question — 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS     39 

namely,  his  practical  attitude  towards  Jewish  Christianity 
and  Judaism — has  been  rightly  interpreted  from  his 
epistles  by  such  scholars  as  Schiirer,  Julicher,  and  P.  W. 
Schmidt.1  And  next,  in  regard  to  the  further  question 
as  to  the  character  of  St  Luke  as  an  historian,  we  are 
in  the  fortunate  position  of  being  able  to  compare  his 
gospel  with  its  sources  St  Mark  and  Q,  and  to  ascertain 
the  measure  of  freedom  which  he  allows  himself  in 
their  use ;  and  from  his  two  books  we  can  moreover 
determine,  with  a  great  degree  of  certainty,  his  own 
views  on  Jewish  Christianity  and  Judaism.2 

1  Schiirer,  moreover,  took  up  an  intermediate  position.  In  the  first 
place  he  held  (in  opposition  to  Julicher)  that  Acts  xxi.  27  ff.  was  a 
good  and  trustworthy  account ;  secondly,  he  closed  his  review  of  my 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  (1908,  col.  176)  with  the  words  :  "  More  particularly 
I  find  myself  at  one  with  Harnack  in  the  opinion  that  we  arrive  at  a 
false  impression  of  St  Paul  if  we  confine  ourselves  solely  to  the  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians.  The  Apostle's  own  testimony  in  1  Cor.  ix.  20  is  just 
as  important.  The  perception  of  this  point  clears  up  many  strange 
notices  and  stories  in  the  Acts,  though  still  only  one  class  of  the  same. " 
Other  scholars  also  have  expressed  similarly  moderate  views.  Wendt 
(Comment,  z.  Ap.  Oesch.,  S.  346  ff.),  Pfleiderer  (Urchristcntum,  I2,  S. 
521  ff.),  and  Joh.  Weiss  (tfber  Absicht.  u.  lit.  Character  der  Ap,  Qesch., 
S.  36  ff.)  are  of  the  opinion  that  Acts  xxi.  23  ff.  is  practically  correct, 
but  that  the  reason  for  the  action  given  in  verse  24  is  to  be  set  to  the 
account  of  the  author  of  the  Acts.  Pfleiderer  well  remarks:  "How 
far  it  is  morally  possible  to  proceed  in  'accommodation'  in  matters 
that  one  regards  as  indifferent  in  themselves  is  a  question  that  depends 
so  much  upon  the  particular  case  that  it  seems  out  of  place  to  make 
any  decision  a  priori.  It  is  certain  that  St  Paul  regarded  '  accom- 
modation' for  the  sake  of  peace  as  right  in  principle."  But  was  it 
only  a  question  of  "accommodation"?  This  concession  does  not  go 
far  enough,  though  it  is  far  in  advance  of  Julicher,  who  is  as  convinced 
as  the  Asiatic  and  other  Jews  in  Jerusalem  that  St  Paul,  if  he  took 
part  in  the  Nazarite  vow,  was  guilty  of  gross  hypocrisy  and  deceit. 

2  Let  me  here,  by  the  way,  make  the  following  remarks  : — The  diffi- 
culties in  the  way  of  the  identification  of  the  author  of  the  Acts  with 


40  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

In  determining  to  investigate  the  relations  of  St 
Paul  with  Jewish  Christianity  and  Judaism  I  am  aware 
that  I  am  fixing  my  eye  upon  a  point  which  is  guarded 
by  the  critics  with  jealous  care  and  with  the  whole 
ardour  of  Protestantism.  The  indignation  into  which 
they  fall,  not  only  if  a  statement  of  St  Paul  in  the 
great  epistles  is  not  received  with  complete  acquiescence, 
but  even  if  the  absolute  inward  and  outward  consistency 
of  the  Apostle  is  called  in  question,  proves  that  they 
are  convinced  that  they  are  defending  a  main  fortress 
of  their  position.  Though  a  situation  of  such  a  kind 
may  not  hinder  a  patient  and  scientific  inquiry,  it  may 
well  be  detrimental  to  the  persuasive  power  of  the 
results  of  such  an  inquiry. 

A. — St  Paul's  Attitude  towards  Jewish  Christianity 
and  Judaism  according  to  his  Epistles;1  his 
Jewish  Limitations 

The  problem  with  which  we  are  here  concerned  is 
generally  stated  as  follows :  firstly,  the  description  of 
the  religious  attitude  of  the  Apostle  to  the  Law,  given 

St  Luke,  a  man  who  had  companied  with  St  Paul,  are  most  strongly 
emphasised  by  the  critics  ;  but  the  difficulties  that  arise  from  supposing 
that  the  man  who  had  spoken  with  Silas,  James,  Philip,  and  Mark 
nevertheless  composed  the  third  gospel,  and  the  difficulty  that  St  Mark 
the  ' '  interpreter "  of  St  Peter  should  have  written  the  second  gospel, 
are  relatively  little  noticed  !  According  to  my  opinion,  this  is  a  case  of 
straining  out  the  gnat  and  swallowing  the  camel.  Vide  infra  con- 
cerning the  cause  of  this  meting  with  two  different  measures. 

1  It  is  not  proposed  to  give  here  a  complete  representation  ;  attention 
will  be  drawn  only  to  those  points — though  these  are  indeed  the  most 
important — which  come  under  consideration  in  connection  with  the 
question  of  the  faithfulness  of  the  portrait  drawn  in  the  Acts. 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS     41 

in  the  epistle  to  the  Galatians,  is  treated  as  a  complete 
and  absolute  representation  of  St  Paul's  mind,  and  is 
regarded  as  the  major  premise ;  then  as  minor  premise 
is  added  the  saying  :  "  To  the  Jews  I  became  as  a  Jew, 
that  I  might  gain  Jews,  although  I  myself  am  not 
under  the  law11  (1  Cor.  ix.  20).  But  the  problem  so 
stated,  leading  to  the  conclusion  that  St  Paul  continued 
to  submit  to  Jewish  customs  purely  from  motives  of 
"accommodation"  does  not  cover  all  the  facts  that 
come  into  view  in  connection  with  the  attitude  of  the 
Apostle  to  Judaism  and  Jewish  Christianity.  The 
problem  is  more  complicated. 

It  is  certain — for  we  have  also  the  testimony  of  the 
Epistles  to  the  Romans  and  Corinthians — that  the 
Apostle's  religious  attitude  to  the  Law,  as  represented 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  was  not  a  temporary 
position  acquired,  narrowly  defined,  and  sharply 
formulated  when  he  was  engaged  in  a  conflict  of 
peculiar  bitterness ;  it  indeed  formed  a  cardinal  article 
of  his  profession  of  faith.  St  Paul  never  withdrew  from 
the  position  that  the  Christian — that  is,  every  Christian, 
Jew  as  well  as  Gentile — is  no  longer,  from  the  religious 
standpoint,  under  the  Law,  i.e.  the  Law  no  longer  comes 
into  consideration  so  far  as  his  relation  to  God  and  the 
moral  value  of  his  conduct  are  concerned ;  for  as  a  child 
of  God  the  Christian  is  led  by  the  Spirit l  which  he  has 
received ;  and  the  Law,  in  so  far  as  righteousness  was  of 
the  Law,  is  satisfied  by  Christ,  "  the  end  of  the  Law  " ; 

1  In  so  far  as  the  Christian  has  still  a  law  to  fulfil,  it  is  the  "law  of 
Christ,"  the  conditions  of  which  are  altogether  different  from  the  law  of 
Moses  ;  vide  Grafe,  Die  paulinische  Lehre  vom  Gesetz,  1884. 


42  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

hence  the  Law  is  abolished.  It  further  follows  that  in 
the  sight  of  God  and  in  their  mutual  relations  and 
intercourse  there  can  no  longer  be  any  distinction 
between  Jew  and  Gentile.  This  is  expressly  stated  not 
only  in  Gal.  iii.  28,  v.  6,  but  also  in  Rom.  x.  12  and 
1  Cor.  vii.  19,  xii.  13;  and  in  these  passages  and  else- 
where it  is  also  said  that  they  all  are  baptized  into  one 
body  and  are  all  Abraham's  children,  and  that  thus  the 
promises  belong  to  them  all. 

This  position  is  so  clear  that  it  seems  necessarily  to 
exclude  every  doubt  as  to  the  proper  attitude  now  to 
be  adopted  towards  the  Law  and  as  to  the  attitude 
which  St  Paul  himself  adopted.  Yet,  as  a  matter  of 
fact,  we  learn  (1 )  from  the  accusations  of  his  opponents, 
(2)  from  definite  statements  and  arguments  of  the 
Apostle  himself,  that  his  attitude  was  different  from 
what  we  should  have  expected. 

1.  As  we  may  learn  from  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians, 
the  Judaising  opponents  of  St  Paul  brought  against 
him  the  accusation  that  he  still l  preached  circumcision 
(v.  11),  and  that  he  thus  stood  in  flagrant  contradiction 
with  himself.  He  must  have  given  some  occasion  for 
such  an  accusation.2 

2.  Such  occasions  are  to  be  found  even  in  his  epistles 
(not  only  in  the  story  of  Acts  xvi.  3  that  he  had 
circumcised  Timothy). 

1  To  understand  this  "  still "  as  if  St  Paul  here  admits  that  at  the 
beginning  of  his  missionary  career  he  had  still  demanded  circumcision, 
is  quite  uncalled  for. 

2  In  return  the  Apostle  brings  against  his  opponents  the  reproach 
(vi.  13)  that  they,  while  peremptorily  demanding  circumcision,  did  not 
themselves  keep  the  Law. 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS     43 

(a)  Here  1  Cor.  vii.  18  f.  above  all  comes  into  view. 
In  this  passage  the  Apostle  gives  to  the  circumcised 
the  direction  /uy  eincnrda-dco ;  for,  says  he,  each  should 
abide  in  the  condition  in  which  the  Divine  call 
found  him.  This  Liy  €Tri(nrd<r6co,  together  with  the 
general  admonition,  naturally  cannot  have  only  its 
narrow  literal  signification,  nor  can  it  only  mean  that  the 
converted  Jew  should  leave  his  children  uncircumcised ; 
it  can  only  mean  that  the  converted  Jew  should  remain 
faithful  to  the  customs  and  ordinances  of  the  fathers. 
Though  the  motive  is  implicit  it  is  nevertheless  clear 
enough:  that  it  has  anything  to  do  with  salvation  is 
most  distinctly  denied  in  verse  19  (^  ire pirofxrj  ovSev 
€<ttiv,  Kai  fj  aKpo/3v<TTia  ovSiv  iariu,  aXXct  Trjprjcris 
€vto\5)v  deov:  cf.  Gal.  v.  6,  where  we  read  as  the 
apodosis  dWd  ttiotis  Si'  dydirris  evepyovfxevrj) ;  the 
command,  therefore,  must  have  been  given  because  St 
Paul  recognised  that  it  depended  upon  the  Will  of  the 
Creator  whether  a  man  is  born  Jew  or  Gentile,1  and 
because  he  felt  that  this  Will  ought  to  be  respected. 
This  attitude  in  itself  was  enough  to  give  rise  to  the 
charge  that  the  Apostle  taught  circumcision,  and  this 
charge  need  not  have  been  simply  d\ie  to  malice.  Was  it 
such  a  simple  thing  to  distinguish  between  the  saving 
Will  of  God  and  His  Will  as  Creator,  and  to  declare 
that  according  to  the  former  Will  the  law  was  abrogated, 
while  allowing  it  to  stand  for  Jewish  Christians  accord- 
ing to  the  latter  Will  ?  Was  one  who  attempted  to  draw 
such  fine  distinctions  entirely  above  suspicion  ? 

(6)  But  in  the   Epistle  to  the  Galatians  itself  this 
1  This  is  implied  in  the  abbreviated  expression  iv  rp  k\{\<tu  %  iit\1iBri. 


44  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

opinion  concerning  the  continuance  of  the  obligation  to 
observe  the  Law  has  received  still  harsher  expression, 
so  that  it  becomes  at  once  explicable  how  the  reproach 
of  v.  11  could  have  been  made.  In  Gal.  v.  3,  St 
Paul  writes  :  "  I  testify  again  to  every  man  that  is 
circumcised  that  he  is  bound  to  observe  the  whole  Law.11 
This  statement,  according  to  St  Paul's  meaning,  is  by 
no  means  confined  only  to  the  circumcised  who  were 
not  Christian,  but  applies  also  to  circumcised  Christians, 
otherwise  it  would  not  have  been  written  in  terms 
of  such  general  connotation.1  If  we  now  add  as  a 
major  premise  that  the  Law  no  longer  possesses 
religious  and  moral  obligation  because  it  has  now 
absolutely  ceased  to  exist  as  a  divine  means  of  salva- 
tion, we  are  again  led  to  the  same  conclusion,  that  the 
Jewish  Christian  is  to  keep  the  Law  because  in  it  is 
given  the  manner  of  life  which  God  had  willedybr  him. 
Hence  the  whole*  Law  continues  to  exist  as  custom  and 
ordinance  for  Jewish  Christians.  What  a  dialectic,  to  be 
sure,  which  allows  God  to  preserve  the  Law  in  force  as  a 
customary  rule  of  life  for  a  'particular  circle  of  men,  while 
asserting  that  the  same  God  has  abolished  the  Law  as  a 
means  of  attaining  to  righteousness,  for  all  men,  and 
thus  also  for  those  for  whom  it  is  still  m  force  !  Can 
we  then  wonder  that  misunderstandings  arose  and  that 
strong  opposition  was  stirred  up  ? 

(c)    But    does   St   Paul,   in    asserting    the    lasting 

obligation  upon  Jewish  Christians  to  observe  the  Law, 

really  base  his  opinion  solely  upon  the  ground  that 

the  Jew  still  remains  a  Jew  and  therefore  must  con- 

1  So  also  B.  Weiss,  Bibl.  Theol.,  S.  348,  and  many  other  commentators. 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    45 

tinue  to  live  in  accordance  with  Jewish  custom  and 
ordinance  ?  Is  this  somewhat  petty  motive  really  the 
only  one  ?  By  no  means  !  The  Epistle  to  the  Romans 
here  gives  the  needed  information. 

The  great  division  formed  by  chaps,  ix.-xi.  of  this 
epistle  comes  from  the  pen  of  one  whose  very  soul  is 
bound  by  every  tie  of  passionate  affection  to  his  people. 
He  is,  to  his  most  bitter  sorrow,  forced  to  recognise 
that  this  people,  because  of  its  unbelief,  is  on  the  way 
seemingly  to  eternal  destruction.  He  struggles  for 
light  as  to  the  purposes  of  God ;  he  is  ready  himself  to 
suffer  eternal  damnation  if  only  his  nation  might  be 
again  accepted  by  God.  Yet  can  the  nation — <Si/  j; 
vloQea-la  kcu  fj  So£a  kcu  at  SiaOrJKai  kcu  f/  vo/xodea-ia  /cat 
rj  Xarpela  Kai  al  eirayyekiai,  oov  oi  7raTe/oe?  kcu  e£  wv  6 
Xpio-Tos  to  /terra  crdpKa — actually  come  to  destruction  ? 
What  of  the  Divine  promises  and  pledges  ?  In  chaps. 
ix.  and  x.  the  Apostle  seems  to  acquiesce  in  the  answer 
that  the  promises  still  remain  in  force  because  they 
apply  to  Israel  Kara  irvev/xa.  Through  the  gift  of 
the  righteousness  which  is  by  faith,  the  Gentile  is 
engrafted  into  this  Israel  Kara  irvevfia ;  and  so  this 
Israel  continues  to  exist  even  if  no  Jew  by  birth  is 
found  therein !  But  this  answer,  though  it  ought  to 
have  sufficed,  does  not,  nevertheless,  satisfy  the  Apostle  ! 
Therefore  in  chap.  xi.  another  entirely  different  view 
appears  by  the  side  of  the  first.  There  is  fulfilment  of  the 
Divine  promises  also  for  Israel  Kara,  a- a  pita.  God  cannot 
and  has  not  rejected  His  people — meaning  here,  Israel 
Kara.  aapKa  !  As  a  proof  there  is  :  in  the  first  place,  the 
Apostle   himself  (verse  1  :   Ka\   yap   iyto  'lo-patjXeiTrj? 


46  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

eifil,  €K  crirepfxaroi  'A/3pad/x,  <pv\tjs  Bewa/mV),  together 
with  those  Jews,  small  though  their  number  might  be, 
who  believed  in  Christ  (verse  4) ; 1  and,  secondly,  there 
is  the  consideration  that  the  present  hardening  and 
rejection  of  the  Jews  was  intended — as  the  Apostle 
believed — to  bring  about  that  reception  of  the  Gentiles 
into  God's  family  which  was  now  being  accomplished. 
From  this,  he  further  concludes,  it  is  certainly  to  be 
believed  that  the  time  of  Israel  Kara  o-dpica  will  again 
come ;  for  if  it  is  possible  to  engraft  twigs  of  the  wild 
olive  into  the  good  olive,  then  still  more  must  it  be 
possible  to  engraft  twigs  that  have  been  hewn  off  from 
the  good  olive  into  their  own  tree.  Note  that  the 
(believing)  Israel  Kara  ardpica  is  and  remains  "  the  good 
olive  tree"  (in  contrast  with  the  wild  olive  tree  of  the 
Gentiles) ;  every  Israelite  is  a  "  natural  branch  "  of  this 
good  olive  tree  even  if  he  under  circumstances  must  be 
hewn  off;  and  the  believing  Israel  Kara  crdpica.  is  the 
root,  in  whose  sap  and  fatness  the  engrafted  wild  shoots 
partake,  and  which  bears  them  (verses  24,  17,  21,  18).2 
The  sentence,  "  Uncircumcision  is  nothing  and  circum- 
cision is  nothing,"  has   force  only  in  reference  to  the 

1  Here  we  are  reminded  of  Luther's  answer  to  the  anxious  question 
of  Melanchthon  as  to  where  the  Church  of  Christ  was  now  to  be  found. 
Would  that  the  Apostle  had  abided  by  this  view  ! 

2  Herzog  very  justly  remarks  in  "  Die  Gefangennahme  des  Apostels 
Paulus,"  Interned.  Theol.  Zeitschr.,  1905,  5  Heft,  S.  197  ff.  (an  article 
which  belongs  to  the  best  that  has  been  written  about  St  Paul  in  the 
last  years) :  "If  St  Peter  or  St  James  had  used  this  simile  of  the  olive 
tree  it  would  without  doubt  have  been  regarded  as  a  proof  of  the 
slight  estimation  in  which  the  Jewish  Apostles  really  held  the  Gentile 
Christians,  and  how  very  determined  they  were  to  make  Christianity 
appear  merely  as  a  continuation  of  Judaism." 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS     47 

righteousness  which  is  of  faith  ;  and  there  is  a  point  of 
view  from  which  it  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference 
whether  a  man  is  a  Jew  by  birth  or  a  Gentile.  And 
St  Paul  now  sums  up  with  his  philosophical  reading  of 
the  great  historical  drama :  "  Hardening  cnrb  p.epov$ 
hath  befallen  Israel  [Kara  ardpKa],  until  the  fulness  of 
the  Gentiles  be  come  in,  and  so  all  Israel  [/caret  crap/co] 
shall  be  saved.1  As  touching  the  Gospel  they  are 
[God's]  enemies  for  your  sake  [so  that  you  Gentile 
Christians  may  now  be  engrafted],  but  as  touching  the 
election  [before  time  began,  which  will  be  accomplished 
in  the  end  of  all  things]  they  are  [God's]  beloved  for 
the  fathers1  sake ;  for  the  gifts  and  the  calling  of  God 
are  without  repentance." 

There  is  no  possibility  of  doubt — the  Apostle  teaches, 
so  we  may  say,  a  double  fulfilment  of  the  promise,  and 
he  teaches  that  Israel  Kara  irvev/xa  is  rooted  and 
remains  rooted  in  Israel  /terra  crapica  in  so  far  as  it  has 
become  believing.  The  promise  is  fulfilled  in  that  from 
people  of  all  kinds — here  there  is  no  distinction  between 
circumcision  and  uncircumcision — and  by  the  free  gift 
of  the  righteousness  which  is  by  faith,  the  one  people 
of  God  is  established.  And  yet,  though  this  is  indeed 
the  chief  part  of  the  fulfilment,  it  is  by  no  means  the 
final,   the    perfect    fulfilment.       The    fulfilment    only 

1  rb  irXfoupa  ruv  idvwv  in  regard  to  the  number  included  ha9  not 
the  same  significance  as  iroj  '\ffpa.4\\.  The  latter  expression  (compared 
with  verse  7)  means  that  in  the  fulness  of  the  times  the  number  of  the 
rejected  from  Israel  will  be  so  small  as  not  to  count ;  the  former 
expression  leaves  undecided  the  ratio  of  the  Gentiles  who  are  saved 
to  the  whole  number,  for  the  "plena  copia"  is  determined  by  the 
fK\oyf)  (verse  7). 


48  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

becomes  perfect  when  the  pledges  given  to  Israel  Kara 
crapKa  are  fulfilled,  and  this  Israel,  as  was  promised  to  the 
fathers,  is  saved,  in  order  that  thus  Israel  Kara  irdpica, 
even  at  the  last,  may  hold  its  ground  as  the  People  of 
Promise.1 

It  is  usual  to  admire  the  profundity  of  the  philo- 
sophical interpretation  of  history  upon  which  St  Paul 
has  based  this  hope  of  his,  and  our  hearts  are  indeed 
moved  with  wonder  and  sympathy  by  his  passionate 
devotion  to  his  nation  and  its  ancient  customs  and 
privileges ;  but  we  overlook,  or  out  of  respect  to  the 
greatness  of  the  man  do  not  dare  to  express,  the 
fact  that  by  this  particular  view  his  whole  doctrine 
of  faith  is  embarrassed,  thrown  into  confusion,  and 
rendered  seriously  inconsistent.  Psychologically  all  is 
clear,  and  no  single  word  of  excuse  is  necessary ;  but 
practically  this  discordant  addition  (for  so  it  may  be 
described)  which  the  Apostle  makes  to  his  doctrine  of 
Salvation  runs  across  the  very  principle  of  his  faith  and 
even  counteracts  its  convincing  force.2     St  Paul,  by  an 

1  B.  Weiss  (loc.  cit.,  S.  272)  has  correctly  reproduced  the  thought  of 
the  Apostle:  "While  the  privilege  which  was  given  to  the  nation 
of  Israel  through  the  Law  could  be  turned  into  its  opposite  because  of 
the  sin  of  the  nation,  the  privilege  which  the  nation  possessed  in  the 
promise  of  Messianic  Salvation,  because  of  its  descent  from  the 
Patriarchs,  was,  and  would  continue  to  be,  inalienable.  .  .  .  The  free 
gifts  of  God,  and  especially  the  calling  to  the  Messianic  Salvation 
which  had  been  granted  to  the  nation,  could  not  be  repented  of  and 
could  not  be  withdrawn."  Compare  also  Rom.  xv.  8  ;  and  Weiss 
justly  remarks  that,  in  spite  of  the  actual  revolution  in  the  calling 
to  the  Salvation  proclaimed  in  the  Gospel,  this  Salvation,  according 
to  St  Paul's  view,  was  still,  in  the  first  place,  for  the  Jews  (Rom.  i.  16). 

a  To  Gentile  Christians  of  the  next  generations  (and  certainly  also  to 
contemporaries)  the  argument  of  Rom.  xi.  must  have  been  very  un- 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS     49 

entirely  new  theocentric  and  universalistic  theory,  had 
indeed  upset  the  expectation  of  the  Primitive  Apostles 
that  the  Jewish  people  would  first  be  converted  and 
that  then  the  Gentile  world  would  follow.  According 
to  this  theory  of  his  there  was  no  distinction  between 
Jews  and  Greek ;  but  to  draw  the  logical  conclusion, 
which  must,  of  course,  have  set  him  in  flagrant  contra- 
diction with  the  historical  sense  of  the  prophecies  of 
the  Old  Testament,  was  quite  beyond  him  ;  the  Jew  in 
him  was  still  too  strong  and  his  reverence  for  the  content 
of  the  Old  Testament  still  too  devoted !  Here  at  the 
last  point  the  Apostle  holds  his  hand,  and  instead  of  now 
resolutely  striking  Israel  Kara,  aapica.  out  of  the  scheme 
of  salvation,  he  allows  it  still  to  remain,  and  simply 
turns  the  expectation  of  the  Primitive  Apostles  right 
round  about  by  a  piece  of  artificial  dialectic :  first 
the  Gentiles,  then  Israel  Kara,  o-apica. !  St  Paul  had 
already  delivered  fatal  blows  against  the  significance 
and  the  authority  of  the  Old  Testament.  In  unbounded 
largess  he  had  distributed  its  glorious  promises  to  the 
Gentiles,  he  had  reduced  Israel  Kara,  aapica  to  beggary 
and  extinction — we  can  well  imagine  the  jubilation  of 
the  Greek,  the  indignation  of  the  Pharisee,  of  the 
earnest  Jew  and  Jewish  Christian  !  But  see  !  he  shrinks 
back  from  the  final  logical  conclusion  that  Israel  Kara. 
crapKa  has  no  promises  at  all,  and  never  possessed  any  ; 
at   the  very   moment  when   the  fight   seems   over   he 

pleasing.  They  could  only  pass  over  it  in  silence,  and  this  they  did. 
Happily  the  grand  Pauline  teaching  on  righteousness  by  faith,  freedom, 
and  universalism  was  so  powerful  and  impressive  as  to  drown  for  the 
ears  of  Gentile  Christians  this  troublesome  episode. 

4 


50  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

sounds  a  parley  and  goes  over  to  the  camp  of  the 
enemy !  Side  by  side  with  the  promises  which  apply 
to  Israel  Kara  irvev/nay  the  very  same  promises  still 
remain  in  force  for  Israel  Kara,  a-apica !  What  could 
this  mean  ?  Friend  and  foe  alike  must  have  been  in 
perplexity !  The  same  apostle  who  with  new  religious 
weapons  so  mightily  contended  against  the  claims 
of  the  Jewish  people  in  so  far  as  they  based  them 
upon  observance  of  the  Law,  now  champions  the  peculiar 
hopes  of  this  same  people  under  the  title  of  promises ! 

Had  St  Paul  always  thought  thus,  or  did  he  first  learn 
to  think  in  this  way  at  the  time  when  he  wrote  the 
Epistle  to  the  Romans  ?  This  is  a  matter  for  dispute. 
According  to  1  Thess.  ii.  14-16,  it  seems  as  if  at  that 
time  he  did  not  entertain  such  views ;  and  this  is  the 
opinion  of  B.  Weiss l  and  others.  But  to  me,  at  least, 
it  is  very  doubtful  whether  the  Apostle  originally  held 
such  an  opinion,2  then  renounced  it,  and  then  adopted 
it  again ;  nor  does  1  Thess.  ii.  16  say  anything  about 
a  definite  annihilation  of  the  Jewish  nation.3  It  is 
possible  that  in  religious  questions  the  Apostle's 
theories  might  vary  in  accordance  with  the  suggestions 
of  each  moment,  but  such  variation  is  not  probable 
in  the  case  of  this  national  question.4  Again  in  2  Cor. 
iii.  16  the  hope  of  the  conversion  of  the  whole  nation  is 
expressed.     But  however  this   may   be,5   it   is   certain 

1  Bibl.  Theol.6,  S.  372,  n.  8. 

2  This  we  must  at  all  events  assume. 

3  Vide  v.  Dobschiitz,  S.  115  ff.,  on  this  passage. 

4  Phil.  iii.  2  ff,  does  not  contradict  this  view ;  here  the  Apostle 
concerned  with  Jews  of  the  time,  who  were  hardened. 

6  In  no  case  is  it  to  be  deduced  from  the  words  introducing  the 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS     51 

that  St  Paul,  when  he  set  out  for  the  last  time  to  go 
to  Jerusalem,  cherished  this  hope  (for  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans  was  written  not  long  before  the  beginning  of 
this  journey).  This  fact  is,  as  will  be  seen,  of  great 
importance. 

If,  however,  it  is  true  that  the  Apostle  still  continued 
to  cherish  great  hopes  for  Israel  Kara  crapKa^  then  new 
light  falls  upon  his  injunction  that  the  circumcised 
should  continue  to  observe  Jewish  customs.  This 
injunction  is  based  not  only  upon  the  general  con- 
sideration that  the  Divine  ordinance  of  the  Creator  is 
to  be  respected,  but  also  upon  the  hope  itself;  for  if 
the  nation  no  longer  observes  its  Law,  then  it  is  no 
longer  the  Jewish  nation ;  and  thus  there  is  now  no 
nation  for  which  the  special  promise  belonging  to  the 
Jewish  nation  can  be  fulfilled.  Thus  life  in  accordance 
with  the  Law  must  continue.  Moreover,  in  so  far  as 
the  Apostle  himself  belongs  to  this  Israel  Kara  a-apica^ 
he  also  seems  to  imply  that  he,  in  his  own  person,  has 
a  share  in  the  special  promise  which  is  given  to  the 

passage  concerning  the  future  salvation  of  all  Israel  (xi.  25  :  ov  0e\a> 
vfias  ayvoeiv  rb  fnvar-fiptov  tovto)  that  St  Paul  here  proclaims  a 
"mystery"  upon  which  he  elsewhere  preserves  silence.  This  is  not 
the  significance  of  /xvar^piov.  With  St  Paul  a  mystery  is  a  mystery 
because  of  its  content  and  origin,  not  because  of  the  way  in  which 
it  is  treated  (vide  1  Cor.  xv.  51).  That  the  argument  in  Rom.  xi. 
is  not  constructed  ad  hoc  may  also  be  deduced  from  Rom.  xv.  27  :  for 
here,  where  the  context  is  entirely  different,  the  Apostle  says  that  the 
itvtvpaTiKd  belong  to  the  Jews  by  birth  ;  if  the  Gentiles  share  in  them, 
then  they  are  bound  in  return  to  support  the  Jewish  Christians  with 
their  offerings  (iy  t<hj  ffapniKois  \eirovpyrj<Tai  rois  aylois  iv  'l€pov<ra\4ifi) ! 
This  means  nothing  else  than  to  assign  to  the  Jews  a  position  of  abiding 
privilege  in  the  kingdom  of  God  and  to  demand  recognition  of  the 


52  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

nation  qua  nation,  and  that  he  sets  a  high  value  upon 
his  participation  therein. 

(d)  But  do  we  not  exaggerate  ?  Yes  and  no.  Here, 
again,  we  meet  with  a  perplexing  point  in  the  thought 
of  the  Apostle.  On  the  one  hand  we  hear  from  the 
Apostle's  own  letters  the  loud  triumphant  cry,  "  I  am 
free  from  all  things  and  all  men,"  "  I  am  the  freedman 
of  Jesus  Christ,"  "  I  have  power  over  all  things."  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  with  what  pride  St  Paul  boasts  that 
he  is  a  true  Jew  !  In  2  Cor.  xi.  22  he  writes  :  "  I  also 
am  a  Hebrew,  I  also  am  an  Israelite,  I  also  am 
Abraham's  seed " ;  likewise  in  Rom.  xi.  1 :  "  For  I  am 
an  Israelite  of  the  seed  of  Abraham,  of  the  tribe  of 
Benjamin";  and  again  in  Phil.  iii.  4  f . :  "Though  I 
myself  might  have  confidence  even  in  the  flesh  ;  if  any 
other  man  thinketh  to  have  confidence  in  the  flesh,  I 
yet  more ;  circumcised  the  eighth  day,  of  the  stock  of 
Israel,  of  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  a  Hebrew  of  Hebrews ; 
as  touching  the  law,  a  Pharisee ;  as  touching  zeal,  per- 
secuting the  Church;  as  touching  the  righteousness  which 
is  in  the  Law,  found  blameless."  But  how  does  the 
Apostle  now  judge  of  these  privileges  ?  Here  appears  the 
self-contradiction.  When  he  thinks  of  Christ  and  of 
the  righteousness  which  is  by  faith,  he  counts  them  as 
loss,  indeed  as  "  dung  "  ;  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  this  very 
passage  (Phil.  iii.  7  ff.)  shows  most  distinctly  that  he 
is  conscious  of  suffering  a  real  loss  which  he  only  bears 
willingly  because  he  receives  a  greater  gain.  He  suffers 
loss  in  that  he  renounces  these  privileges  because 
he  does  not  observe  the  obligations  to  which  these 
privileges  are  exclusively  attached ;  that  is,  because  he, 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS     53 

as  a  missionary  to  the  Gentiles,  withdraws  himself  from 
the  strict  order  of  Jewish  life  and  jeopardises  his  bond 
of  fellowship  with  his  nation.  There  is,  indeed,  perplex- 
ing contradiction  enough  here — for  how  can  a  man 
renounce  that  which  in  a  sense  is  a  blessing  vouchsafed 
by  God  ? — and  the  contradiction  is  not  removed  but 
rather  rendered  more  complicated  by  the  hope  of  the 
Apostle,  which  shines  forth  from  Rom.  xi.  and  other 
passages,  that  what  has  been  promised  to  Israel  Kara 
a-dpKa  cannot  come  to  nought  in  the  case  of  any  Jew 
who  belongs  to  Israel  Kara  Trvev/xa.  Does  St  Paul 
think,  or  does  he  not  think,  that  in  the  end  he  will  also 
receive  that  promise,  the  preliminary  condition  of 
obtaining  which  he  has  now  cast  away  as  "  loss "  and 
"dung"?  Are  there  thus  two  promises?  Certainly 
not !  But  is  the  freedom  which  he  has  won  in  Christ 
in  every  sense  and  absolutely  an  object  of  triumphant 
thankful  joy,  or  is  the  joy  one  for  which  the  Apostle 
is  conscious  that  he  has  made  a  painful  sacrifice  ?  And 
is  this  sacrifice  final  or  only  provisional  ?  It  seems  to 
me  that  the  Apostle  is  swayed  by  contradictory 
thoughts  and  feelings  even  though  the  feeling  of 
excelling  gain  is  the  uppermost. 

(e)  Under  the  sense  of  this  excelling  gain,  which  pre- 
supposes the  consciousness  that  he  is  raised  into  heights 
where  the  distinction  between  Jew  and  Gentile  has  no 
meaning,  St  Paul  wrote  the  words  of  1  Cor.  ix.  20  :  "  To 
the  Jews  I  became  as  a  Jew,  that  I  might  gain  Jews ; 
to  them  that  are  under  the  Law,  as  under  the  Law,  not 
being  myself  under  the  Law,  that  I  might  gain  them  that 
are  under  the  Law."     These  words  presuppose  that,  as  a 


54  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Christian  and  an  apostle,  he  was  raised  out  of  and  above 
Judaism,  so  that  now,  even  if  he  still  lived  as  a  Jew,  he 
so  lived  with  the  object  of  converting  Jews.  Of  course, 
it  may  well  be  questioned,  after  what  we  have  set  forth 
above,  whether  this  is  a  complete  statement  of  the  case. 
The  Apostle,  indeed,  did  not  absolutely  dissolve  his 
connection  with  Israel  Kara  <rdpKa,  because  he  could  not 
set  aside,  nor  indeed  did  he  wish  absolutely  to  set  aside 
a  given  fact.  Even  were  he  in  his  manner  of  life  no 
longer  a  Jew,  in  so  far  as  he  did  not  look  for  righteous- 
ness from  the  observance  of  the  Law,  and  did  not 
usually  have  recourse  to  the  ordinances  of  the  Law  ; 
still,  not  only  did  his  heart  beat  warmly  towards  the 
nation,  but  he  also  believed  in  the  fulfilment  of  the 
promises  to  his  people,  and  he  himself  was  and  still 
continued  to  be  of  the  seed  of  Abraham.  Such  feelings 
must,  according  to  circumstances,  have  found  outward 
expression  in  his  manner  of  life. 

Here,  then,  we  pass  to  the  consideration  of  the  actual 
conduct  of  the  Apostle.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that 
he  himself  ate  with  converted  heathen,  and  therewith 
entered  into  full  fellowship  with  them.  But  this  only 
describes  his  ordinary  behaviour.  When  he  found 
himself  in  a  purely  Jewish  environment,  and  hoped  to 
win  converts  from  those  with  whom  he  associated,  he, 
for  their  sakes,  observed  the  customs  of  the  Law  just 
as  reformed  Jews  do  nowadays  when  they  are  in  the 
company  of  orthodox  Jews.  For  this  we  have  his  own 
testimony.  We  must,  moreover,  leave  the  probability 
quite  open  that  upon  purely  Jewish  soil  he  also  lived 
as  a  Jew.     What,  indeed,  was  there  to  hinder  him  ? 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS     55 

Not  only  had  he  "power  over  all  things,"  but  his 
own  heart  also  drew  him  to  his  people  and  to  the 
customs  of  his  forefathers.  The  hope  by  which  he 
lived  was  the  hope  of  Israel — never,  to  our  regret,  did  he 
forget  this  ! — for  that  hope  he  lived,  for  that  he 
fought !  Though  he  had  completely  abolished  the  old 
conditions  of  the  hope,  still  for  Jews  he  had  only 
abolished  them  as  establishing  merit.  He  never  dreamed 
of  dispensing  with  them  as  the  given  customary  law  for 
Jews.  Hence  in  general  he  lived  "  as  without  the  Law,1"1 
but  also  under  certain  circumstances  as  under  the  Law. 
Unfortunately,  we  are  unable  to  produce  any  instance 
from  his  epistles  to  illustrate  the  latter  situation,  and 
we  do  not  know  either  how  far  he  went  in  his  observance 
of  Jewish  laws  or  how  often  he  found  himself  so 
placed.  There  is  thus  a  serious  gap  in  our  first-hand 
knowledge  of  this  side  of  St  Paul's  conduct ;  but 
that  this  side  existed  there  can  be  no  doubt,  nor  is 
there  any  question  of  the  double  principle  upon  which 
it  was  based — the  principle  of  accommodation  and,  for 
the  circumcised,  of  obligation. 

What  injunctions,  however,  does  he  in  this  connection 
give  to  others  ?  Here  also  we  must  regret  that  his 
epistles,  with  the  exception  of  the  important  passage 
Gal.  ii.  11  ff.,  leave  us  without  information;  for  all 
those  passages  to  which  we  are  generally  referred  for  an 
answer  to  this  question  have  not  in  my  opinion  any 
certain  connection  with  it.  From  Gal.  ii.  11  ff.,  how- 
ever, it  follows  that  in  St  Paul's  opinion  the  proper 
position  for  Jew  and  Gentile  was  that  of  complete 
fellowship  with  one  another — in  spite  of  the  principle 


56  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

that  each  should  abide  in  the  calling  wherein  he  was 
called.  This  indeed  especially  follows  from  the  words 
addressed  to  St  Peter  («  <rv  'lovSatos  inrapxcov  edviKwg 
Kai  ovk  'Iov8aiKO)$  £*7?,  7rco?  to.  eQvri  avayicdfceis  tovBa'i^etv ;)  ; 
for  these  words  presuppose  the  thought  that  fellowship 
was  unavoidable  and  necessary,  and  that  accordingly, 
if  the  Jewish  Christians  did  not  accommodate  them- 
selves to  the  Gentile  Christians,  the  Gentile  Christians 
would  be  compelled  to  do  so  and  thus  to  live  as  Jews. 
Seeing,  however,  that  the  imposition  of  the  Law  upon 
the  Gentile  Christians  signified  an  attack  upon  their 
status  as  Christians — such  is  the  Apostle's  most  certain 
conviction — it  followed  that  the  Jewish  Christians  must 
accommodate  themselves  to  the  Gentile  Christians. 

But  how  could  they  do  this?  For,  on  the  other 
hand,  they  must  still  observe  the  Law,  and  yet  every 
act  of  association  with  the  uncircumcised  rendered 
them  impure.  The  Apostle  does  not  in  his  epistles 
give  a  direct  answer  that  would  serve  to  solve  this 
complicated  problem ;  but  there  can  only  have  been 
one  solution :  Christians  from  among  the  Gentiles  who 
had  been  sanctified  by  baptism  and  the  reception  of  the 
Spirit  are  not  unclean,  they  have  become  Abraham's 
seed;  thus  the  Jewish  Christian  who  associates  with 
them  does  not  contract  any  Levitical  defilement.  This 
must  have  been  the  opinion  of  the  Apostle.1  Accord- 
ingly, the  Jewish  Christian  is  in  the  position  to  enter 

1  This  can  be  indirectly  deduced  from  many  passages  in  the  epistles  ; 
it  stands  out  quite  clearly  from  Acts  xv.  8  f. :  6  dtbs  IfiapripTifftv  avro'is 
tiovs  rb  irvtvfia  rb  S/yiov  Kadws  ical  rj^uy  •  •  •  tjj  iriarti  KaOapiffas  rh.s 
icapSias  avroov  {vide  infra). 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS   57 

into  fellowship  with  uncircumcised  Christians,  and 
yet  to  observe  faithfully  the  whole  Law;  for  the 
uncircumcised  Christians  with  whom  he  associates  are 
also  "  Israelites. " 

If  this  were  the  position  which  the  Apostle  adopted 
and  defended,  then  we  can  quite  well  understand  that 
he  was  charged  with  insincerity  and  sophistry,  and 
that  some  said  that  he  destroyed  the  Law,  while  others 
said  that  he  still  favoured  the  Circumcision.  His  con- 
tention that  he  never  tried  to  influence  a  Jew  to  forsake 
the  observance  of  the  Law — and  he  was  most  emphatic 
upon  this  point  —  must  have  appeared  false  !  But 
what  were  the  actual  conditions  that  existed  in  his 
own  communities?  It  is  strange  that  this  important 
question  is  seldom  clearly  stated  in  works  on  the 
Apostolic  epoch.1  The  only  apology  that  can  be 
given  is  that  our  authorities  tell  us  so  little.  From 
what  has  been  said  above  we  must  assume  that  St  Paul 
everywhere  worked  for  the  establishment  of  mutual 
fellowship,  and  that  in  his  eyes  it  was  intolerable  that 
Christians,  who  in  Christ  were  united  in  one  body, 
should  not  live  in  the  closest  communion  with  one 
another.2  From  the  very  first  in  the  Pauline  com- 
munities this  aspiration  of  the  Apostle  cannot  on 
the  whole  have  failed  of  fulfilment.  If  it  were  other- 
wise, if  the  communities  were  in  themselves  split  up 

1  Dobschiitz  has  thoroughly  considered  this  question  (Problems  des 
Apost.  Zeitalters,  1904,  S.  81  ff.) 

2  V.  Schubert  {K.  Gesch.,  i.,  S.  99  f.)  is  also  of  this  opinion. 
Dobschiitz  (loc.  cit.,  S.  84,  n.  1)  does  not  correctly  reproduce  the  mean- 
ing of  Schubert. 


58  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

into  distinct  and  permanent  parties,  some  mention  of 
the  fact  must  have  appeared  in  the  epistles ;  but  their 
silence  here  is  significant.  Also,  we  ought  not  to 
forget  that  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  had  been 
accustomed  for  generations  to  associate  with  Gentiles, 
and  had  certainly  found  out  hundreds  of  ways  of 
breaking  through  the  barriers  of  separation  where 
these  were  too  troublesome,  and  that  many  of  them 
were  heartily  glad  when  their  change  in  religion 
offered  them  the  justification  of  a  lax  interpretation 
of  the  laws  of  purity  which  they  had  already  long 
ago  carried  into  practice. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  certain  that  complete 
amalgamation  was  not  brought  about  at  once,  and  also 
that  local  differences  must  in  this  connection  have 
played  an  important  part.  Seeing  that  St  Paul  always 
first  preached  in  the  Synagogue,  how  could  he  hinder 
— and  did  he  even  wish  at  once  to  hinder  ? — Jews  by 
birth  from  still  going  to  the  Synagogue  ?  The  formal 
separation  from  the  fellowship  of  the  Synagogue,  upon 
which  fellowship  all  kinds  of  rights  and  privileges 
depended,  can  only  have  been  brought  about  gradu- 
ally, even  though  in  a  relatively  short  time,  and 
under  the  pressure  of  external  causes.  Again,  among 
St  Paul's  converts  there  was  many  a  Jew  who  harboured 
serious  scruples  as  to  the  Apostle's  theory  that  all 
Christians,  whether  circumcised  or  not,  were  "pure.1' 
In  such  cases  St  Paul  did  not  resort  to  methods  of 
compulsion,  but  brought  into  action  his  principle  of 
consideration  for  "the  weak,"  and  earnestly  com- 
mended this  principle  to  the  Gentile  Christians.     "  The 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    59 

weak  "  in  the  Pauline  epistles  are  not  indeed  coextensive 
with  strict  Jewish  Christians — there  were  "  weak  "  ones 
who  were  Gentile  Christians,  i.e.  the  ascetics, — but 
there  is  no  question  that  strict  Jewish  Christians  are 
intended  to  be  included  among  them.  Lastly,  I  would 
refer  to  the  hypothesis  concerning  the  destination  of 
the  Second  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  which  I  have 
lately  published  (Sitzungsber.  d.  AJcad.  d.  Wiss.,  1910, 
16  Juni).  If  this  hypothesis  is  right  we  acquire  the 
important  piece  of  information  that  the  Christian  com- 
munity in  Thessalonica  during  the  first  months  after 
its  foundation  was  not  yet  in  a  strict  sense  one  body, 
but  that  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians  were  still 
relatively  distinct,  and  required  different  treatment 
in  matters  of  pastoral  care.  Further,  we  notice  that 
the  Apostle  is  by  no  means  anxious  to  establish  com- 
plete union  forcibly  and  hastily,  that  he  accepts  the 
conditions  as  they  exist,  and  that  he  only  brings  his 
authority  to  bear  in  the  most  deeply  spiritual  matters  of 
faith,  hope,  and  sanctification,  leaving  all  other  matters 
untouched.  Evidently  he  is  convinced  that  his  inter- 
vention in  the  details  of  the  life  of  a  not  yet  completely 
united  community  would  be  mischievous,  and  that  it 
was  best  to  await  with  patient  self-restraint  the  growth 
of  the  community  into  one  body  also  in  its  outer  life.1 

1  The  First  Epistle  to  the  Thessalonians  was  addressed  to  the  com- 
munity as  a  whole  ;  this  community  as  a  whole  was  evidently  completely 
divorced  from  the  Synagogue ;  whether,  however,  the  same  was  true 
of  the  Jewish-Christian  minority  for  which  the  Second  Epistle  was 
intended  is  questionable.  There  is  much  that  speaks  to  the  contrary 
if  one  compares  the  two  epistles,  yet  it  is  more  probable  that  the 
minority  was  already  separated  from  the  Synagogue. 


60  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Not  only  the  theory  of  the  Apostle,  but  also  his 
conduct  and  the  injunctions  which  he  gave  in  regard 
to  intercourse  between  Jewish  and  Gentile  Christians, 
must  have  given  the  gravest  offence  not  only  to  strict 
Jews,  but  also  to  "  the  saints  "  in  Jerusalem,  the  majority 
of  whom  were  zealous  for  the  Law.  If  we  set  ourselves 
in  the  position  of  these  saints,  we  cannot  really  wonder 
at  their  attitude  towards  St  Paul:  he  recognised  the 
God-given  privileges  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  at  the 
same  time  by  his  work  as  a  missionary  he  abolished 
them.  These  Jewish  Christians  had  in  fact  everything 
in  the  past  and  present  on  their  side,  but  were  of  course 
blind  in  regard  to  the  future;  St  Paul,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  nothing  tangible  to  depend  upon  except  the 
force  of  his  own  progressive  religious  conception.  His 
limitation  lay  in  this,  that  he  had  not  thought  this  concep- 
tion out  to  the  end,  and  accordingly  held  fast  to  an 
indefinite  compromise  with  Jewish  convictions ;  and  that, 
instead  of  carrying  on  the  fight  along  the  whole  line,  he 
on  important  points  yielded  to  the  Jew  in  the  Jewish 
Christian x — not  from  cowardice  or  insincerity,  but  because 

1  In  allowing  that  Israel  Karb.  aapxa,  because  of  the  promises,  held 
a  privileged  position  within  the  Israel  Karh  irvevfia  ;  that  only  Christians 
who  were  Jews  by  birth  were  the  good  olive  tree,  while  the  Gentile 
Christians  were  only  grafts  from  the  wild  olive  tree  ;  that  thus  the 
whole  Hope  is  the  Hope  of  Israel ;  tbat  the  Gentile  Christians  have 
material  obligations  towards  the  Jewish  Christians;  and  that  the 
Jewish  Christians  should,  and  indeed  must,  still  observe  the  Law  of 
Moses,  though  it  is  now  abolished  !  Again,  it  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  St  Paul  sets  the  po/xodtala  and  the  \arptla  side  by  side  with  the 
vlodeo-ia,  as  the  great  privileges  of  Judaism  !  The  Apostle's  Jewish 
limitations  are  also  declared  in  the  fact  that  his  whole  conception  of 
universal  history  is  Judseocentric.    The  grand  closing  scene  is  reached 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS   61 

the  Jew  in  himself  was  still  too  strong.  The  logical 
position  which  he  could  not  and  would  not  adopt  may 
be  learned  from  the  post-Apostolic  fathers,  above  all 
from  Justin.     It  runs  as  follows  : — 

1.  Seeing  that  the  Mosaic  Law  is  abolished,1  it  is 
sinful  apostasy  to  observe  it. 

%  All  the  promises  without  exception  refer  only  to 
the  new  people  of  the  Christians,  which  is  in  fact  the 
most  ancient;  it  is  impertinence  on  the  part  of  the 
Jews  to  claim  the  promises  for  themselves. 

3.  Jewish  Christians  who  still  keep  the  Law  and  would 
compel  Gentile  Christians  to  do  the  same  are  not  Chris- 
tians but  Jews  ;  likewise  also  Jewish  Christians  who  still 
observe  the  Law,  and  on  this  account  will  not  associate 
with  Gentile  Christians,  are  Jews  and  not  Christians. 

when  Antichrist  appears  and— establishes  himself  in  the  temple  of  God 
in  Jerusalem.  This  ttaQlcrai  (It  rbv  vabv  rod  deov  is  the  crowning  act 
of  wickedness  (2  Thess.  ii.).  Brought  face  to  face  with  the  great 
universe,  how  confined,  how  limited  is  such  a  view  !  St  Paul  in 
thought  and  feeling  is  thoroughly  rooted  in  the  Jewish  world  ;  it  still 
bounds  his  horizon,  in  spite  of  the  many  ideas  he  has  adopted  from  the 
world  outside.  His  heart  beats  in  rhythm  with  the  Jewish  heart,  and 
his  head  works  with  the  categories  of  the  Pharisee — and  that  not  least 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Galatians.  It  is  the  more  wonderful  how  boldly 
he  worked  his  way  out  of  Judaism  in  the  deeper  matters  of  personal 
religion  and  ethics.  It  would  be  well  for  the  critics  who  (like  Reitzen- 
stein)  are  more  than  disposed  to  make  the  Apostle  a  Hellenist,  if  they 
would  first  try  to  gain  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  Jew  and 
Christian  in  St  Paul  before  they  take  into  account  the  secondary 
elements  which  he  borrowed  from  the  Greek  mysteries.  They  would 
then  at  once  realise  that  these  elements  were  uninvited  intruders  into 
his  scheme  of  thought,  and  that  it  is  quite  out  of  place  to  speak  of 
their  conscious  acceptance  by  him. 

1  We  pass  by  the  controversies  on  the  question  whether,  according 
to  the  will  of  God,  the  Law  ever  held  good  in  its  verbal  sense. 


62  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

4.  Jewish  Christians  who  still  keep  the  Law,  but  look 
upon  Gentile  Christians  as  their  Christian  brethren, 
may  perhaps  pass  as  Christians  (though  many  would 
even  have  nothing  to  do  with  them). 

Here  indeed  there  is  no  compromise !  For  the  man 
teaching  such  opinions  there  was  no  longer  any  inward 
conflict  with  Judaism ;  by  his  denial  of  the  historical 
sense  of  the  Old  Testament  (sub  specie  finis  et  ceterni), 
and  by  his  appropriation  of  its  promises,  he  had  slain 
and  plundered  Judaism  and  left  behind  nothing  but  a 
naked  corpse.  St  Paul  also  had  abolished  the  Law  sub 
specie  finis  et  aeterni ;  but,  like  Lot's  wife,  he  still  looked 
backwards  and  suffered  it  to  remain  as  the  customary 
code  for  Jews.  And  yet  his  treatment  of  the  question 
is  far  more  profound  than  that  of  the  more  logical ; 
they,  under  the  form  of  the  Law  spiritually  understood, 
reintroduced  the  forma  legis ;  it  was  just  this  forma  legis 
that  St  Paul  abolished  and  therewith  raised  religion  to 
a  higher  plane !  Still,  he  allowed  the  letter,  which  of 
course  could  no  longer  kill,  to  continue  in  force  for 
Jewish  Christians.  The  Jew  in  him  which  could  not 
bear  to  let  slip  the  prerogatives  of  Israel  and  his  own 
pride  in  his  nation,  while  renouncing  the  purely  literal 
and  national  interpretation  of  the  Law,  and  the  free 
spirit  which  allowed  the  Law  to  continue  as  a  customary 
code  because  from  the  higher  standpoint  this  was  a 
matter  of  perfect  indifference,1  here  meet  in  the  same 
conclusion.     An  agreement  both  paradoxical  and  fatal ! 

1  St  Paul  already  possessed,  under,  it  is  true,  a  rigid  exterior,  some 
perception  of  the  relative  and  historical  method  of  interpreting  the  Old 
Testament. 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    63 

Fatal,  however,  in  the  end,  only  so  far  as  St  Paul  himself 
was  concerned !  In  his  inward  mental  life  he  used 
himself  up  in  the  effort  to  mediate  between  the  idea  of 
freedom  and  universalism  on  the  one  hand  and  the 
ancient  Jewish  claim  on  the  other ;  in  his  outward  life  he 
never  succeeded  either  in  making  himself  appear  a  con- 
sistent man,  or  in  freeing  himself  from  the  reproach  that 
he  lived  in  a  contradiction.  But  for  the  cause  of  Christi- 
anity, for  the  furtherance  of  the  mission,  this  ambiguity 
in  his  position  was  probably  of  great  advantage ;  for, 
sternly  logical  though  this  position  was  in  its  purely 
religious  aspect,  it  nevertheless  formed  a  transitional 
stage  in  the  great  religious  transformation,  for  Israel  is 
still  recognised  as  the  good  olive  tree  into  which  the 
Gentiles  are  grafted !  *  Thus  the  advance  to  the  con- 
ception and  realisation  of  Christianity  as  a  new  religion 
proceeded  by  the  way  of  evolution,  and  the  revolution 
was  avoided  which  must  have  ensued  if  the  strictly 
logical  position  had  been  at  once  adopted,  for  there 
would  have  been  no  point  common  to  this  position  and 

1  The  imagery  under  which  St  Paul  pictures  to  himself  the  Church 
of  Christ  is  not  fully  realised  if  we  think  that  he  only  meant  here  to 
teach  that  Jews  and  Gentiles  are  united  in  one  body,  the  body  of 
Christ.  What  he  means  is  this :  that  the  Gentiles  are  engrafted  into 
the  Israel  to  which  the  promises  have  been  made.  Even  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Ephesians,  where  some  passages  would  seem  to  imply  that  Jews 
and  Gentiles  stand  absolutely  upon  the  same  level  in  the  Church,  we 
find  in  an  important  context  the  remark  (ii.  12):  "that  ye  were  at 
that  time  separate  from  Christ,  alienated  from  the  commonwealth  of 
Israel,  and  strangers  from  the  covenants  of  the  promise."  Thus  the 
Gentiles  have  now  entered,  not  into  something  absolutely  new,  but 
into  the  commonwealth  of  Israel,  not  as  strangers  and  sojourners,  but 
as  full  citizens. 


64  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

that  of  the  Apostles  of  Jerusalem.  We  may  indeed 
question  whether,  under  such  circumstances,  even  the 
Old  Testament  could  have  withstood  the  storm.  Had 
it  been  lost,  the  new  religion  would  have  been  left  with- 
out root,  and,  so  far  as  we  can  see,  the  Christian  churches 
would  have  fallen  victim  to  the  same  fate  which  befell 
the  Gnostic  communities  in  the  second  century. 

But  not  only  did  St  Paul  use  himself  up  in  the 
problem  "  Universalism  and  Judaism  " :  he  here  proceeded 
even  to  the  length  of  martyrdom.  On  this  point  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  alone  gives  us  clear  and  detailed 
information,  but  the  fact  itself  can  also  be  deduced  from 
the  Pauline  epistles.1 

St  Paul,  when  he  was  writing  the  Epistle  to  the 
Romans,  found  himself  in  Corinth.  He  declares 
that  he  had  no  longer  any  place  in  the  lands  in  which 
he  had  up  to  this  time  been  working  (Rom.  xv.  23), 
and  he  repeatedly  expresses  his  earnest  wish  to  go  to 
Rome.  And  yet,  though  he  was  at  the  time  relatively 
near  to  Rome,  he  was  compelled  to  inform  his  readers 
that  he  could  not  at  present  pay  them  a  visit ;  for  he 
must  first  go  to  Jerusalem  (xv.  25  ff.).  The  only  reason 
given  for  this  journey  is  that  he  must  take  to  Jerusalem 
an  offering  which  the  Gentile  Christians  were  sending 
to  "  the  saints "  in  that  city  as  their  bounden  duty ; 
when  this  was  accomplished  he  would  pay  them  a  visit. 
But  scarcely  has  he  said  this  when,  from  a  heart  full  of 
anxiety,  there  rushes  forth  the  touching  petition  :  "  I 
beseech  you,  brethren,  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  by 
the  love  of  the  Spirit,  that  ye  strive  together  with  me 

1  See  od  this  point  Herzog's  excellent  treatise  mentioned  above. 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    65 

in  your  prayers  to  God  for  me  ;  that  I  may  be  delivered 
from  them  that  are  disobedient  in  Judaea;  and  that 
my  "ministration  which  I  have  for  Jerusalem  may 
be  acceptable  to  the  saints ;  that  I  may  come  unto 
you  in  joy  through  the  will  of  God,  and  with  you 
find  rest." 

But  if  he  must  fear  for  his  own  life  because  of  the 
Jews  in  Judaea,  and  if  he  was  doubtful  of  his  standing 
with  "the  saints"  and  of  his  welcome  as  a  brother, 
why  does  he  go  to  Jerusalem  at  all  ?  And  if  he  must 
fear  that  even  the  gift  which  he  takes  with  him  may 
not  touch  the  hearts  of  the  brethren  of  Jerusalem  and 
improve  his  position  with  them,  why  does  he  not  send 
the  gift,  if  under  the  circumstances  it  were  well  to 
make  a  gift  at  all,  by  the  hands  of  others  ?  Either  he 
must  have  felt  bound,  in  the  interests  of  his  work  as 
an  apostle,  to  go  to  Jerusalem,  or  he  hoped — if  but 
faintly — that  by  taking  the  gift  himself  he  might  dispose 
the  Christians  in  Jerusalem  to  a  better  opinion  con- 
cerning himself  and  his  ministry.  It  seems  to  me  that 
we  must  assume  that  both  motives — for  they  cannot  be 
sharply  distinguished  from  one  another — were  at  work 
in  his  mind.  He  certainly  would  not  have  put  his  life  in 
jeopardy  or  have  lightly  exposed  himself  in  person  to  a 
direct  repulse  if  he  had  not  been  convinced  that  the  re- 
cognition and  sympathy  of  the  Mother  Church  were  neces- 
sary for  the  maintenance  and  progress  of  his  work;  that 
the  church  of  Gentiles  must  be  kept  in  brotherly 
fellowship  with  the  spiritual  portion  of  Israel  Kara 
<TapK(x>  and  that  for  this  object  every  nerve  must  be 
strained    and   every  personal   sacrifice  must  be  made. 


66  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

There  is  nothing  strange  in  this  thought,  for  the 
believing  Gentiles  must  remain  joined  to  the  "good 
olive  tree  "  into  which  they  are  grafted.  St  Paul,  then, 
only  carries  this  conviction  into  practice !  It  is  on 
this  account  that  the  Apostle  goes  to  Jerusalem ;  for 
this  cause  he  not  only  puts  his  life  in  jeopardy,  but 
also  feels  constrained,  by  bringing  with  him  this  great 
offering,  to  force  the  Christian  community  of  Jerusalem, 
whose  mistrust  he  must  have  known,  to  decide  whether 
they  would  give  yet  further  scope  to  their  mistrust  or 
would  acknowledge  him,  the  Apostle,  and  the  conse- 
quences of  his  mission.  We  know  the  result.  It 
justified  the  apprehensions  of  the  Apostle :  the  later 
epistles  show  him  as  a  prisoner.  We  can  therefore 
say,  quite  independently  of  the  Acts,  that  the  great 
missionary  work  of  the  Apostle  was  interrupted  because 
he  could  not  free  himself  from  his  feelings  of  natural 
piety  towards  his  own  Jewish  people.  He  was  taken 
captive  by  the  Jews — this  is  the  tragic  part  of  it — 
at  the  very  moment  when  in  all  sincerity  he  was  making 
the  most  strenuous  efforts  after  reconciliation  with  them. 
Yet  who  can  wonder  that  the  Jews  counted  as  nothing, 
indeed  even  as  pure  hypocrisy,  the  friendly  sentiments, 
words,  and  acts  of  a  man  who  throughout  the  whole 
empire  enticed  their  proselytes  from  their  synagogues 
and  taught  born  Jews  to  associate  without  scruple  with 
Gentiles  and  to  give  up  strict  observance  of  the  laws  of 
purity  ?  His  letters  do  not  tell  us  how  the  Jewish 
Christians  of  Jerusalem  treated  him ;  we,  however, 
remember  the  apprehensions  expressed  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Romans ! 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    67 

B. — The  Attitude  of  the  Apostle  St  Paul  towards 
Judaism  and  Jewish  Christianity,  according  to 
the  last  Chapters  of  the  Acts 

St  Luke's  own  attitude  towards  both  Gentile  and 
Jew  makes  him  appear  specially  fitted  to  record  the 
corresponding  attitude  of  St  Paul ;  for,  like  the 
great  Apostle,  his  heart  beats  warmly  for  all  men,1 
whom  he  considers  as  universally  called  to  salvation 
(without  first  becoming  Jews),  and  yet  he  at  the  same 
time  regards  with  the  greatest  respect  and  reverence 
the  character  and  the  religious  observances  of  the 
pious  Jew.2     Nevertheless,  it  is  possible  that  he  may 

1  It  is  unnecessary  to  give  instances ;  the  most  important  have  been 
lately  again  collected  by  Zahn,  Einl.,3  S.  383  ff. 

2  Vide  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  pp.  281  ff.  The  most  important 
instances  in  point  are  given  by  Zahn,  loc.  cit.,  S.  398.  The  first 
chapters  of  each  of  St  Luke's  works  offer  remarkably  telling  examples. 
Passing  over  these,  we  find  that  even  according  to  St  Luke  our  Lord 
raises  no  objection  to  the  Pharisees'  exact  observance  of  the  Law,  but 
countenances  it  (xi.  42  :  ravra.  eSei  iroirjcrai  KaKeiva  /*■))  iraptlvai)  and 
declares  the  permanence  of  the  Law  (xvi.  17).  But,  above  all,  the 
"people  "  with  St  Luke  is  always  the  Jewish  people,  and  the  Redemption 
applies  in  the  first  place  to  this  people  (Christendom  is  the  body  of  believ- 
ing Jews,  and  the  Gentiles  are  called  to  join  them)  ;  for  this  very  reason 
— just  as  in  Rom.  xi. — it  is  certain  that  the  time  will  come  when  this 
people  will  repent  (xiii.  35,  Acts  iii.  20  f.  :  the  xp^vol  awoKara- 
ffTdaews).  It  follows  from  this — just  as  with  St  Paul — that  the  present 
"times  of  the  Gentiles"  only  form  an  episode  (St  Luke  xxi.  24). 
But  if  this  is  so,  there  is  nothing  objectionable  in  the  circumstance 
that  Jews  by  birth  should  even  as  Christians  continue  in  their  Jewish 
observances,  and  specially  in  their  practice  of  the  whole  Temple 
cultus  ;  indeed,  such  continuance  followed  as  a  matter  of  course. 
Evidently  St  Luke  thoroughly  sympathised  with  this  attitude  of  the 
Jewish  Christians,  and  the  keener  their  devotion  to  their  ritual,  the 
more  emphatic  was  his  approval.     He   is  also  far  from  blaming  the 


68  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

have  given  a  distorted  representation  of  the  attitude 
of  St  Paul ;  for  on  an  important  point  he,  without 
knowing  it,  conceives  of  Judaism  quite  differently  from 
St  Paul.  According  to  St  Paul  the  Law  has  absolutely 
no  significance  as  a  means  of  salvation,  not  even  for 
Jews  by  birth ;  but  according  to  St  Luke — in  a  passage 
where  he  evidently  takes  pains  to  reproduce  St  Paul's 
teaching  in  his  own  words  (Acts  xiii.  38  f.) — justifica- 
tion by  faith  is  for  Jewish  Christians,  one  might  say, 
only  complementary.  They  need  it  because,  and 
in  so  far  as,  they  fail  in  the  fulfilling  of  the  Law; 
for  the  Law  affords  no  complete  justification : 
"Through  Jesus  is  proclaimed  unto  you  remission  of 
sins ;  and  by  Him  everyone  that  believeth  is  justified 
from  all  things  from  which  ye  could  not  be  justified 
by  the  Law  of  Moses.'1  It  is  not,  however,  probable 
that  a  difference  of  this  kind  in  the  conception  of  a 
refined  doctrine  like  the  Pauline  doctrine  of  justifica- 
tion could  have  influenced  St  Luke  in  his  description 
of  the  practical  attitude  of  St  Paul  towards  Judaism 
and  Jewish  Christianity.  Lastly,  the  question  may 
be  allowed  whether  St  Luke  did   not  perhaps  think 

zeal  of  Jewish  Christians  for  the  Law.  Lastly,  we  see  quite  clearly 
from  the  story  of  Cornelius,  told  twice  and  in  detail,  and  moreover  with 
special  sympathy,  that  the  only  thing  required  from  the  Jewish  Christian 
was  that  he  should  renounce  his  principles  of  Levitical  purity  in  the 
case  of  Gentile  Christians,  because  God  had  cleansed  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  those  Gentiles  who  were  called  to  salvation.  No  other  demands 
were  made  ;  more  particularly,  no  question  was  raised  concerning  the 
continuance  of  circumcision  and  the  cultus.  This  is  almost  exactly 
the  attitude  of  St  Paul,  who  never  enjoined  Jewish  Christians  to 
refrain  from  circumcising  their  children  and  to  give  up  the  Temple 
worship. 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS    69 

of  the  Temple  somewhat  differently  from,  and  with 
more  of  the  mind  of  a  devotee  than,  St  Paul ;  but  we 
should  not  forget  that  the  Apostle,  in  spite  of  his 
conviction  that  Christians  are  a,  or  even  the,  Temple 
of  God,1  nevertheless  wrote  2  Thess.  ii.,  and  thereby 
proclaimed  that  the  Jewish  Temple  still  had  significance 
for  him.  On  the  other  hand,  St  Luke,  with  all  his 
deep  reverence  for  the  Temple  and  its  worship,  wrote 
the  words :  6  ovpavov  kcu  yJ;?  virapxoov  Kvpios  ovk  ev 
Xeipo7roi^Tois  vaol?  Karoacei  (Acts  xvii.  24).  Any 
difference,  therefore,  on  this  point  is  scarcely  likely 
to  have  exercised  a  disturbing  influence  upon  St  Luke's 
portraiture  of  St  Paul. 

What,  however,  does  St  Luke  tell  us  concerning 
St  Paul's  notable  resolve  to  go  first  to  Jerusalem 
instead  of  to  Rome?  What,  according  to  him,  was 
the  future  development  of  events,  and  in  what  relations 
towards  Judaism  and  Jewish  Christianity  does  he 
picture  St  Paul  as  standing? 

1.  We  are  told  in  the  Acts  that  St  Paul  formed 
the  plan  to  go  to  Rome  at  the  end  of  the  long  stay 
in  Ephesus,  just  the  time  that  we  should  conjecture 
from  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  and  practically  by  the 
same  roundabout  route  (xix.  21)  as  that  proposed  in 
the  epistle :  "  (From  Ephesus  to  Macedonia  and  Achaia 
and)  from  Achaia  to  Rome  by  way  of  Jerusalem " ! 2 


1  1  Cor.  iii.  16  f.,  vi.  16  ;  Ephes.  ii.  21. 

2  If  we  closely  compare  Acts  xix.  21  with  Rom.  xv.  23-25,  we  are 
astonished  at  the  completeness  of  coincidence  in  the  two  passages, 
i.e.  in  the  trustworthiness  of  the  representation  given  in  the  Acts. 
This  is  not  a  "  we  "-section. 


70  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

The  Acts  proceeds  to  tell  us  how  the  first  part  of 
the  plan  was  carried  out,  and  that  after  this  St  Paul 
did  not  take  ship  from  Corinth  into  Syria,  but 
chose  to  make  the  first  part  of  his  journey  by  land, 
"because  the  Jews  made  plots  against  him1'  (xx.  3). 
Thus  the  fear,  which  he  expressed  in  the  Epistle  to 
the  Romans  (xv.  31),  that  the  Jews  in  Jerusalem 
might  seek  his  life,  is  justified  by  the  plots  on  the 
part  of  the  Jews  of  the  Diaspora,  to  which  he  found 
himself  already  exposed.1 

The  Acts  at  first  tells  us  nothing  concerning  the 
motive  which  led  St  Paul  to  Jerusalem ;  it  is  not  till 
much  later  that  we  learn  the  object  (xxiv.  17):  "To 
bring  alms  to  my  nation,  and  offerings.11  We  are,  how- 
ever, informed  from  the  very  first  that  St  Paul  started 
from  Philippi  directly  after  the  Passover  (xx.  6),  that 
he  wished  if  possible  to  be  in  Jerusalem  for  Pentecost 
(xx.  16) ;  further,  that  a  considerable  number  of 
Christians  (Jewish  and  Gentile)  from  his  convert 
churches  accompanied  him,  and  that  this  number  grew 
in  the  course  of  his  journey. 

The  last  piece  of  information,  and  St  PauPs  own 
statement  that  he  was  going  up  to  Jerusalem  to  carry 
thither  the  great  Gentile  contribution,  complete  one 
another  in  the  most  satisfactory  way  (especially  if  we 
bring  2  Cor.  viii.  8  ff.  into  comparison).  If  the  aim  of 
the  contribution  was  to  create  a  bond  between  St  PauPs 
mission  and  the  church  of  Jerusalem,  this  aim  would 
be  more  surely  attained  if  representatives   of  Pauline 

1  The  Acts  tells  us  nothing  of  the  nature  of  the  plots  ;  probably  it 
was  intended  to  get  rid  of  him  in  some  way  on  the  voyage. 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS   71 

communities  brought  the  gift  in  person  to  Jerusalem, 
and  thus  gave  expression  to  the  gratitude  which,  accord- 
ing to  Rom.  xv.  27,  was  their  bounden  duty.1 

Now,  St  Luke  was  a  member  of  this  deputation,  and 
yet  he  at  first  makes  no  mention  of  the  contribution, 
and  afterwards  only  casually  refers  to  it.  It  follows 
that  he  was  convinced  that  the  personal  presence  of 
the  delegates  was  of  still  greater  value  than  the  gift  they 
carried  with  them.  Taking  into  account  the  additional 
information  given  in  the  Acts,  that  St  Paul  undertook 
the  journey  iv  iruevfxari  indeed  as  one  "  bound  in  the 
Spirit'1  (xx.  22,  xix.  21),  and  combining  therewith  his 
intention  to  be  in  Jerusalem  at  Pentecost  (thus  at  a 
feast  attended  by  multitudes  of  pilgrims)  and  to  take 
part  in  the  sacrificial  ceremonies  of  the  feast,  we  form 
the  following  conception  of  the  actual  facts  : — St  Paul, 
before  he  made  up  his  mind  to  leave  his  mission  in  the 
east  and  to  extend  his  ministry  to  the  west,  felt  bound 
and  compelled 2  "  by  the  Spirit "  to  go  to  Jerusalem  in 
spite  of  the  evident  danger  to  his  life,  for  the  following 
reasons :  (1)  that  by  taking  part  with  the  Jewish  nation 
in  the  celebration  of  the  feast  he  might  testify  to  the 
Jews,  and  therefore  also  to  the  Jewish  Christians,  that  he, 
the  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles,  did  not  attack  the  religion 

1  It  is  true  that  the  considerable  body  of  Gentile  Christians  which 
accompanied  the  Apostle  to  the  Holy  City  may  well  have  rendered 
him  an  object  of  suspicion  in  the  eyes  of  his  compatriots,  and,  as  a 
matter  of  fact,  it  did  bring  him  into  peril.  St  Paul  must  have 
foreseen  this  danger  ;  but  he  was  determined  to  risk  everything. 

2  This  compulsion  by  the  Spirit  expresses  St  Paul's  inward  certainty 
that  the  interests  of  his  life's  work  demanded  that  he  should  undertake 
this  fatal  journey. 


72  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

of  his  nation  or  the  religious  practices  of  his  forefathers, 
and  that  accordingly  the  reports  that  he  taught  against 
the  nation,  the  Law,  and  the  Temple  were  false ;  and 
(2)  that  by  bringing  to  Jerusalem  a  gift  from  the 
Gentile  Christians,  and  by  the  personal  presence  of 
their  representatives,  he  might  convince  the  Christian 
community  in  Jerusalem  of  their  brotherly  feelings  and 
might  dispel  the  suspicion  that  the  Pauline  Christians 
were  a  radical  sect  with  which  it  was  impossible  to  have 
any  dealings.  He  felt  the  carrying  out  of  this  plan  to 
be  specially  urgent  now  that  he  was  about  to  pass  on 
to  a  new  mission  field ;  for  he  wished  to  protect  himself 
and  his  work  from  the  disintegrating  influence  of  the 
calumnious  assaults  of  Jews  and  Jewish  Christians,  to 
prevent  at  all  costs  the  schism  which  threatened  to 
break  out  between  the  native  Christians  of  Judaea  and 
the  churches  of  his  own  creation,  and  to  clear  the  way 
for  the  further  progress  of  his  mission.1     The   heroic 

1  Herzog  (loc.  cit.,  S.  200  ff.)  tries  to  show  that  St  Paul's  real  aim 
in  going  to  Jerusalem  was  neither  to  join  in  the  Pentecostal  sacrifices 
nor  to  carry  with  him  the  contribution,  but  only  that  he  might  prepare 
for  himself  a  favourable  reception  in  the  synagogues  of  Rome  :  "  If  he 
wished  for  welcome  in  Rome,  he  must  first  find  for  himself  a  favour- 
able reception  in  Jerusalem  ;  if  he  hoped  for  success  in  attracting  the 
Gentile  adherents  of  the  synagogues  of  Rome  into  the  Christian  Church, 
he  must  first  find  friendly  recognition  in  Jerusalem  for  the  first-fruits 
of  his  priestly  ministry  in  the  Gentile  world."  I  regard  this  hypo- 
thesis, which  rests  upon  a  careful  study  of  Rom.  xv.,  as  correct, 
though  the  way  in  which  it  is  presented,  as  if  it  excluded  other 
reasons  for  the  journey,  is  questionable  and  unnecessary.  St  Paul 
went  to  Jerusalem  also  to  make  secure  the  work  which  he  had  already 
accomplished,  and  to  meet  the  calumnious  attacks  which  had  hindered 
his  work  in  Asia,  Macedonia,  and  Achaia,  and  had  caused  him  much 
distress. 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    73 

course  of  bearding  the  lion  in  his  den  was  necessary 
because  the  very  highest  was  at  stake.  That  God  had 
now  rejected  His  people  (though  only  temporarily)  was 
a  conception  crushing  indeed,  yet  one  in  which  the 
faith  of  the  Apostle  was  strong  enough  to  acquiesce ; 
but  that  the  Gentile  Christians — these  wild  shoots 
engrafted  in  the  good  olive  tree — should  drift  into 
abiding  enmity  with  the  spiritual  portion  of  Israel 
Kara  aapica.  was  a  thought  which  for  St  Paul  was 
absolutely  inconceivable  and  which  threatened  his 
very  faith !  Hence  this  journey,  bold  to  the  point 
of  rashness !  What  it  was  intended  to  prevent  came 
to  pass  in  the  end,  and  that  indeed  soon ;  yet  the 
Church  of  Jesus  Christ  survived ;  but  at  that  time 
the  knowledge  of  the  future  course  of  events  would 
have  been  fatal ! 

This,  then,  is  what  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  recounts, 
including  what  must  necessarily  be  supplied  to  complete 
the  record.  Can  we  say  that  this  account  contains  a 
single  false  or  suspicious  trait  ?  I  can  find  none,  except 
perhaps  where  the  Apostle  is  made  to  say  (xxiv.  17) 
that  he  had  gone  to  Jerusalem  to  take  alms  to  his 
"  nation.11 1     Critics  spy  here  insincerity  and  hypocrisy, 

1  No  one  can  possibly  imagine  that  St  Paul,  if  he  wished  to  be  in 
Jerusalem  at  Pentecost,  intended  simply  to  spend  the  festival  holidays 
there  and  not  to  partake  in  the  celebration  of  the  feast,  in  its  prayers 
(xxiv.  11)  and  sacrifices.  But  this  intention  to  spend  Pentecost  in 
Jerusalem  cannot  be  an  invention  on  the  part  of  St  Luke,  seeing  that 
he  has  not  even  thought  it  necessary  to  mention  whether,  after  all,  the 
Apostle  really  arrived  in  Jerusalem  in  time.  Hence  it  is  certain  that 
St  Paul  wished  to  take  part  in  one  of  the  chief  Jewish  festivals ;  it 
follows  that  he  wished  to  proclaim  publicly  on  Jewish  soil,  and  in  the 
midst  of  his  own  people  according  to  the  flesh,  that  he  still  reckoned 


74  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

because  the  offering  was  only  made  to  the  Christians 
of  Jerusalem.  But  we  may  reply :  that  in  the  first 
place,  seeing  that  the  members  of  the  Christian  com- 
munity of  Jerusalem  were  still  so  closely  connected  with 
their  compatriots,  it  is  not  even  certain  that  no  single 
non-Christian  pauper  received  help  from  the  offering ; 
and  that,  secondly,  St  Paul  sees  in  the  Christian  com- 
munities of  Jerusalem  and  Judaea  the  true  Israel,  and 
he  hopes  (Rom.  xi.)  that  the  whole  nation  will  associate 
itself  with  this  true  Israel 1  at  the  last  day,  which  he 
also  believes  to  be  close  at  hand.  What  he  did,  he 
accordingly  felt  that  he  did  for  all  Israel ;  he  had  ever 
before  his  eyes  the  nation  in  its  entirety — the  nation  of 
which  he  writes  in  Rom.  ix.  1 :  ol  aSe\<pol  fxov  ol 
(Tvyyevel?  yuou  Kara,  <rapKa,  oItlvc's  elcriv  'laparjXeirai 
(thus  all !).  The  man  who  wrote  Rom.  ix.-xi.  could 
accordingly  say,  "I  bring  alms  for  my  own  nation,11 
without  rendering  himself  guilty  of  untruthfulness  or 
hypocrisy.  The  conversion  of  the  whole  nation  was 
the  ultimate  aim  of  all  his  exertions.  In  the  further- 
ance of  this  object  he  did  not  hesitate  to  do  things 
which  probably  scandalised  many  of  his  Gentile 
Christians  if  they  heard  of  them ;  as  for  acting  and 
speaking  as  he  is  represented  as  acting  and  speaking 

himself  an  Israelite  and  did  not  despise  the  ordinances  of  his  nation, 
hut  accounted  them  in  force  for  Jews  by  birth.  The  Apostle's  own 
letters  can  be  regarded  as  presenting  evidence  to  the  contrary,  only  if 
we  assume  that  the  attitude  towards  the  Law  which  St  Paul  demanded 
of  Gentile  Christians  did  not  simply  express  the  doctrine  of  religious 
freedom,  but  also  governed  his  own  behaviour  on  Jewish  soil. 

1  We  must  not  absolutely  reject  the  idea  that  St  Paul  hoped  himself 
to  bring  about,  in  Jerusalem,  the  conversion  of  all  Israel. 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    75 

in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  he  could  do  it  with  a  clear 
conscience. 

2.  The  record  of  the  journey  to  Jerusalem  as  pre- 
sented in  the  Acts  gives  no  cause  for  suspicion ;  but  it 
is  important  to  note  that  at  every  port  from  Ephesus 
to  Caesarea  people  knew  of  the  deadly  malice  of  the 
Jews  in  Jerusalem  against  St  Paul  and  adjured  him  to 
give  up  his  journey  thither.  In  his  resistance  to  these 
attempts  at  dissuasion  we  discern  the  same  man  who, 
according  to  Rom.  ix.  3,  wrote :  "  I  could  wish  myself 
anathema  from  Christ  for  my  nation,"  and  who,  accord- 
ing to  the  account  of  the  Acts,  goes  to  Jerusalem 
although  a  martyr's  death  for  his  nation  is  before  his 
eyes.  The  noteworthy  change  of  ships  on  the  voyage 
to  Ptolemais,  and  then  the  journey  by  land  to  Caesarea, 
are  probably  explained  by  St  Paul's  wish  not  to  fall 
victim  to  Jewish  hate  on  the  way  to  Jerusalem,  a 
wish  which  led  him  to  conceal  his  route  as  much  as 
possible. 

On  his  arrival  in  Jerusalem,  St  Paul,  accompanied 
by  the  whole  deputation,  at  once  visited  St  James  and 
the  elders  who  were  gathered  together  to  receive  them. 
The  narrative  of  what  then  happened  shows  that  these 
leaders  had  not  their  community  in  hand  (or  were  they 
taking  shelter  behind  the  community  ?).  They  them- 
selves thanked  God  when  St  Paul  had  related  to  them 
in  detail  the  progress  and  the  success  of  his  mission  to 
the  Gentiles  (xxi.  20) ;  and,  so  far  as  they  themselves 
were  concerned,  they  made  no  demands  of  the  Apostle. 
But  they  openly  declared  to  him  that  this  account  which 
he  had  given  them  would  not  suffice  to  disperse  the 


76  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

suspicion  which  the  community  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
Jewish  Christians  outside  the  city  cherished  against 
him.  These  all  were  zealous  for  the  Law,  and  were 
stirred  with  indignation  by  reports  (emanating  from 
Jews  in  the  Dispersion)  which  had  reached  their 
ears,1  "  that  thou  teachest  all  the  Jews  that  are 
among  the  Gentiles  to  forsake  Moses,  telling  them 
not  to  circumcise  their  children,  neither  to  walk  after 
the  customs." 

This  account,  with  its  clear  statement  that  not  only 
the  Jews  but  also  the  Jewish  Christians  were  incensed 
with  St  Paul,  bears  the  stamp  of  perfect  trustworthiness. 
We  may  be  sure  that  in  certain  instances  the  Apostle's 
mission  to  the  Gentiles  had  led  to  the  result  that 
many  converted  Jews,  because  of  their  converse  with 
converted  Gentiles,  forsook  the  Jewish  customs  and 
no  longer  circumcised  their  children.  It  was  not 
true  that  St  Paul  had  taught  them  to  do  this;  he 
only  demanded  that  Gentile  Christians  should  be 
counted  as  "  pure " ;  but  if  such  was  the  effect  of 
his  ministry  in  not  a  few  cases,  who  can  find  fault 
with  Jews  and  strict  Jewish  Christians  if  they  blamed 
the  Apostle  ?  St  Paul,  indeed,  took  up  a  position  even 
then  no  longer  tenable  zvhen  he  regarded  "  Judaism  "  as 
still  possible  within  the  Christian  fold,  while  he  himself, 
by  his  mission  to  the  Gentiles,  had  actually  severed 
Judaism  inside  Christianity  from  its  roots. 

St  James  and  the  elders — they  had  evidently  arranged 
the   matter  beforehand — now  counsel   the  Apostle  to 

1  Karrix'flOrttrav  irtpl  trov :  they  were  thus,  as  it  were,  formally  in- 
structed in  these  reports. 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    77 

take  part  in  a  Nazarite's  vow,  and  in  this  way  to  give  a 
public  proof  "  that  he  himself  walked  orderly,  keeping 
the  Law "  (xxi.  24).  St  Paul  followed  their  counsel ; 
but  it  befell  otherwise  than  the  elders  expected. 
Jews  from  Asia  espied  him  in  the  Temple ;  they  seized 
him,  crying  out:  "This  is  the  man  that  teacheth  all 
men  everywhere  against  the  people  and  the  Law  and 
this  place ;  and,  moreover,  he  hath  brought  Greeks  also 
into  the  Temple  and  hath  defiled  this  holy  place.1'  The 
last  charge,  according  to  St  Luke,  was  based  only  upon 
conjecture,  for  they  had  recognised  the  Ephesian 
Trophimus  with  him  in  the  city.  The  scene  develops  ; 
they  wished  to  lynch  the  Apostle  on  the  spot,  but  were 
prevented  by  the  arrival  of  the  Roman  guard.1 

1  There  is  a  tragic  Nemesis  in  the  fact  that  St  Paul's  plan — which 
was  itself  quite  impracticable — to  preserve  the  Temple  for  Christianity 
— i.e.  for  the  Jewish  Christians — should  have  led  to  his  incurring  the 
reproach  of  sacrilege  which  was  then  taken  up  as  the  chief  charge 
against  him  (cf.  xxi  v.  5  f . :  "  We  have  found  this  man  a  pestilent  fellow, 
and  a  mover  of  insurrections  among  all  the  Jews  throughout  the  world, 
and  a  ringleader  of  the  sect  of  the  Nazarenes  ;  who,  moreover,  assayed 
to  profane  the  Temple").  The  parallel  with  our  Lord  is  obvious: 
our  Lord  purifies  the  Temple,  and  by  this  purification  asserts  a  claim 
to  it,  with  results  that  were  fatal  to  Himself ;  St  Paul  proclaims  himself 
to  be  a  Jew  devoted  to  the  Temple,  and  this  very  thing  is  his  ruin. 
It  was  the  Jews  who  loosed  Christianity  from  the  Temple,  just  as  the 
Pope  loosed  Luther  and  his  cause  from  Rome  and  the  Catholic  Church. 
St  Paul,  with  all  his  inward  freedom,  was  neither  free  nor  strong  enough 
to  accomplish  the  final  breach ;  it  was  necessary  for  the  Jews  to  help 
him,  just  as  it  was  necessary  for  the  Pope  to  help  the  Reformation. 
St  Paul  suffered  in  Jerusalem  for  a  cause  which  was  not  even  his  own 
— for  the  complete  detachment  of  Christianity  from  Judaism.  But  in 
such  historical  situations  the  eye  of  the  enemy  always  sees  more 
clearly.  The  Jews  were  right — St  Paul's  life's  mission  actually  profaned 
and  destroyed  the  Temple,  abolished  Jewish  customs,  and  did  away 


78  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

This  account,  seeing  that  it  represents  St  Paul  as 
consenting  to  such  a  proposal,  has  given  rise  to  the 
strongest  suspicion.1  The  "  Protestant  conscience " 
will  know  nothing  of  such  a  Paul !  And,  in  truth,  St 
Paul  cannot  have  consented  to  the  proposal  with  the 
purpose  of  proving  that  he,  as  a  matter  of  principle, 
and  upon  every  occasion,  walked  according  to  the  Law  ; 
neither  can  the  elders  have  expressed  themselves  quite 
as  St  Luke  records ;  for  it  was  notorious  that  St  Paul 
had  frequently  offended  against  the  Law.  But  the 
important  question  is,  not  the  wording  of  the  speech  of 
the  elders,2  but  simply  what  St  Paul  did\  Did  he 
take  part  in  a  Nazarite  vow,  to  quiet  the  scruples  of 

with  the  Law  of  Moses.  St  Paul  himself  did  not  suspect  this ;  but 
the  cause  for  which  a  martyr  bleeds  is  very  often  actually  much 
greater  than  he  himself  knows,  and  the  charge  which  he  regards  as 
false  is  often  really  true.     The  martyr  dies  innocently  guilty. 

1  B.  Weiss  and  others  think  that  the  taking  part  in  a  vow  to  which 
there  was  no  legal  obligation  could  not  have  proved  the  "  legality"  of 
St  Paul ;  but  surely  one  who  undertakes  an  opus  supererogationis  thus 
shows  his  obedience  to  the  Law  in  an  especially  striking  way  ;  vide 
Herzog,  loc.  cit.,  S.  214  f.  I  will  not  deal  with  xxi.  25,  for  the 
difficulty  here  belongs  to  the  question  of  the  Council  of  Jerusalem. 
The  whole  verse  is  abrupt,  like  a  shot  from  a  pistol,  and  it  has  therefore 
often  been  remarked  (see,  for  example,  Schiirer,  Theol.  Lit.  Ztg.,  1882, 
S.  348  ;  Wendt,  on  this  verse)  that  we  have  here  an  unsuitable  inter- 
polation— not,  however,  in  a  supposed  "  we  "-account,  but  in  the 
complete  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  That  it  is  a  later,  even  though  very 
early,  interpolation  also  follows  from  the  fact  "that  here,  in  contrast 
with  xv.  21,  the  prohibitions  are  regarded  as  the  minimum  of  legal 
obligation  that  had  been  laid  upon  the  Gentiles,  and  that,  in  contrast 
with  xv.  23,  their  application  to  the  whole  of  Christendom  is  pre- 
supposed" (B.  Weiss). 

2  The  wording  of  the  speech  may  have  been  inaccurately  formulated 
by  St  Luke,  who  greatly  reverenced  Jewish  rites,  either  with  some 
purpose,  or  through  carelessness  of  which  he  is  often  guilty. 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS    79 

Jewish-Christian  brethren,  and  could  he  have  done 
such  a  thing  ?  The  critics  answer :  "  Because  he  could 
not  consistently  have  done  it,  therefore  he  did  not 
do  it."1 

Now,  in  the  first  place,  the  testimony  that  he  did  do 
this  thing  is  not  easy  to  refute ;  for  the  writer  who 
records  it  was  a  companion  of  St  Paul  and  was  with 
him  in  Jerusalem.  The  invention  of  an  incident  of  so 
definite  a  character  cannot  well  be  assigned  to  him.2 
Moreover,  the  fact  that  the  concession  bore  no  fruit 
would  render  the  supposed  invention  absolutely  wanton 
in  character!  Lastly,  from  this  meeting  onwards  St 
Luke  is  completely  silent  concerning  further  dealings  of 
the  Jewish  Christians  of  Jerusalem  with  St  Paul,  and  even 
concerning  the  attitude  of  St  James  and  the  elders.  This 
silence  is  eloquent  enough.  The  Apostle  had  received 
from  them  absolutely  no  further  support ;  we  must 
assume  that  they  had  left  him  to  his  fate.  If  St  Luke's 
attitude  towards  the  Jewish  Christians  had  been  one 
of  sympathetic  partiality  he  would  have  told  us  some- 
thing more  about  them.     No  supposed  bias  on  the  part 

1  An  argument  of  this  kind  is  almost  always  subject  to  suspicion. 

2  Just  as  the  circumcision  of  Timothy  (Acts  xvi.  3),  which  is 
questioned  by  the  school  of  Baur  (because  it  conflicts  with  Gal.  ii.  3  f.), 
gives  absolutely  no  occasion  for  doubt,  seeing  that  the  mother  of  Timothy 
was  a  Jewess  and  that  St  Paul  would  have  been  seriously  handicapped 
in  his  ministry  in  the  Dispersion  if  he  had  sought  communion  with  the 
synagogues  in  the  company  of  an  uncircumcised  half-Jew  (so  also 
Wendt).  Besides,  it  is  possible  (certain,  according  to  Zahn)  tbat  Gal. 
v.  11  refers  to  the  circumcision  of  Timothy.  The  two  traditions  of  the 
circumcision  of  Timothy  and  of  the  participation  in  a  Nazarite's  vow 
confirm  one  another,  and  show  that  the  words  "  to  the  Jews  a  Jew  "  were 
not  mere  words  and  were  not  fulfilled  by  St  Paul  in  word  only. 


80  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

of  the  writer  can  explain  why  he  should  have  confined 
himself  to  inventing  the  single  incident  of  a  plan  that 
failed  while  telling  us  nothing  more ;  for  if  he  wished 
to  picture  St  Paul  as  more  friendly  to  the  Jews  than 
he  really  was,  it  was  not  necessary  for  him  to  invent 
so  detailed  a  story — he  could  have  done  all  he  wanted 
with  one  broad  sweep  of  the  brush.  The  narrative, 
however,  is  the  more  probably  true,  for  this  reason 
also,  because  it  was  for  four  Nazarites  that  the  cost 
of  the  sacrifices  had  to  be  paid ;  and  St  Paul  thus 
appeared  as  a  generous  Maecenas  whose  first  care  was 
not  for  himself  but  for  his  Jewish  brethren,  and  so 
by  a  twofold  way  might  hope  to  attain  to  the  desired 
result. 

But  could  St  Paul  have  thus  acted  ?  According  to  all 
that  we  may  learn  from  his  letters,  unless  we  read  them 
with  distorted  vision,  the  answer  must  be  "  yes."  It  is 
indeed  certain  that  he  was  convinced  that  he  no  longer  was 
under  the  Law,  but  it  is  just  as  certain  that  he,  as  he 
says  himself,  became  a  Jew  to  the  Jews ;  but  more  than 
this — in  one  respect  he  needed  not  to  become  a  Jew,  for 
he  had  never  ceased  to  be  a  Jew.  He  belonged  to  the 
Jewish  nation ;  up  to  this  time  he  had  neither  been 
excommunicated  by  his  people  nor  had  he  separated  him- 
self from  their  communion  ;  accordingly,  he  still  shared 
in  the  special  privileges,  and  took  part  in  the  religious 
duties  of  this  people.  To  maintain  these  privileges  and 
to  practise  these  duties — so  far  as  his  special  calling  as 
Apostle  to  the  Gentiles  allowed  him — was  both  his 
right  and  his  duty.  Moreover,  if  the  interests  of  the 
mission  actually  demanded  both  assertion  and  practice 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS   81 

— and  remember  that  he  stood  at  this  moment  in 
Jerusalem,  and  that  he  was  looking  forward  with 
enthusiastic  yearning  to  the  grand  consummation  when 
all  Israel  would  recognise  their  Saviour  and  would  be 
saved — he  could  not  for  a  moment  doubt  as  to  his 
duty.  The  bad  impression  which  his  action  might 
create  among  Gentile  Christians  would  not  trouble  him  ; 
for  if  he  as  a  Jewish  Christian  offered  sacrifice  and  took 
part  in  a  Nazarite's  vow,  he  did  not  give  up  one  tittle 
of  the  freedom  which  he  demanded  for  Gentile  Christians 
and  which  he  preserved  for  himself  by  his  very  practice 
of  alternating  between  the  customs  of  a  Jew  and  a 
Gentile.  Naturally,  his  fellow-countrymen  did  not 
understand,  indeed  could  not  understand,  such  freedom  ! 
But  the  Apostle  was  not  therefore  a  hypocrite ;  he  can 
only  be  charged  with  hypocrisy  if  he  had  said  "  yes " 
to  the  question  whether  he  always  lived  and  would  live 
as  a  Jew,  or  if  he  had  in  some  other  way  denied  his 
mission  to  the  Gentiles.1 

3.  The  following  passages  of  the  Acts,  so  far  as  the 
question  of  the  relationship  of  the  Apostle  to  Judaism 

1  St  Luke  (xxii.  21  f. )  tells  us  that  he  did  not  do  this.  Schiirer, 
Pfleiderer,  Wendt,  Joh.  Weiss  agree  essentially  with  the  interpretation 
of  the  situation  as  here  given.  Renan  reproaches  the  Apostle  with 
weakness.  St  Luke  has,  moreover,  already  (xviii.  18)  told  us  of  a  vow 
which  St  Paul  had  undertaken  on  the  voyage  from  Cenchrese  to  Ephesus 
(this  cannot  refer  to  Aquila).  The  action  must  have  been  felt  strange 
at  the  time,  otherwise  it  would  not  have  been  recorded.  When 
St  Paul  was  engaged  in  his  mission  on.  Gentile  soil  men  were  not 
accustomed  to  see  him  adopting  some  special  Jewish  custom.  We 
may,  however,  argue  a  majore  ad  minus ;  if  even  here  he,  under 
circumstances,  lived  as  a  Jew,  how  can  we  be  surprised  that  he  did 
so  in  Jerusalem"? 

6 


82  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

is  concerned,1  present  difficulty  in  only  one  point.  It 
is  regarded  as  hypocritical,  indeed  as  a  piece  of  sharp 
practice — and  therefore  as  a  forgery  on  the  part  of  the 
author, — that  St  Paul,  noticing  the  composition  of  the 
Council  before  which  he  was  tried,  should  have  cried 
out  (xxiii.  6),  "  I  am  a  Pharisee,  a  son  of  Pharisees : 
touching  the  hope  and  resurrection  of  the  dead2  am 
1  called  in  question."  It  is  also  considered  doubly 
suspicious  that  this  cry  should  be  represented  as  having 
had  for  the  time  being  the  effect  of  dividing  the  council 
and  assembly,  and  of  turning  the  sympathy  of  the 
Pharisees  towards  the  Apostle.  It  is  also  said  that, 
according  to  Acts  xxiv.  11,  St  Paul  is  guilty  of  an 
untruth  which  told  in  his  favour  as  the  accused,  in 
that  he  professed  that  he  had  undertaken  his  journey 
in  order  that  he  might  worship  at  Jerusalem ;  again, 
that  in  Acts  xxiv.  14  f.,  21  3  all  is  not  straightforward  ; 
and,  finally,  that  this  unstraightforwardness  continues 
in  St  Paul's  speech  before  Agrippa,  Acts  xxvi.    5-9.* 

1  Other  difficulties  which  present  themselves  in  Acts  xxi.  33-xxvi.  32 
do  not  concern  us  here  ;  they  are,  besides,  none  of  them  of  such  a  kind 
as  to  be  inconsistent  with  the  Lukan  authorship,  especially  if  St  Luke, 
as  is  probable,  very  soon  left  Palestine,  and  only  returned  thither  in 
order  to  accompany  the  Apostle  to  Rome. 

2  To  be  regarded,  perhaps,  as  a  case  of  hendiaduoin  (xxiv.  21) ;  but 
the  hope  can  also  be  the  Messianic  hope  (xxvi.  22  f. ). 

*  "  After  the  way  which  they  call  a  sect,  so  serve  I  the  God  of  our 
fathers,  believing  all  things  which  are  according  to  the  Law  and  which 
are  written  in  the  Prophets,  having  hope  toward  God,  which  these  also 
themselves  look  for,  that  there  shall  be  a  resurrection  both  of  the  just 
and  unjust.  .  .  .  Touching  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  I  am  called  in 
question  before  you  this  day." 

4  "After  the  straitest  sect  of  our  religion  I  lived  a  Pharisee.  And 
now  I  stand  here  to  be  judged  for  the  hope  of  the  promise  made  of  God 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS    83 

Even  Wendt,  who  is  usually  so  just  and  circumspect 
in  dealing  with  tradition,  has  doubts  here :  "  The 
author  of  the  Acts  certainly  regards  the  method  by 
which  St  Paul  justifies  himself  as  distinctly  clever. 
But  neither  is  it  worthy  of  St  Paul  to  confuse  the 
situation  by  too  general  and  therefore  misleading 
statements,  nor  is  it  probable  that  the  members 
of  the  Sanhedrim  really  allowed  themselves  to  be  led 
astray  by  St  Paul's  craftiness,  and  to  be  diverted 
from  the  plain,  obvious,  and  declared  grounds  of 
conflict  with  the  Christian  Apostle  to  the  Gentiles 
into  a  quarrel  concerning  party  differences  among 
themselves." 

The  latter  objection  may  for  the  present  be  left  as  it 
stands,  although,  considering  the  opposition  between 
Pharisees  and  Sadducees,  and  the  excitable  character  of 
the  Jews  in  religious  questions,  it  need  not  be  accounted 
as  improbable  that  the  judges  themselves,  together  with 
their  attendants,  had  on  one  occasion  during  the  trial 
fallen  into  controversy.  Such  a  thing  happens  even 
under  the  completely  changed  circumstances  of  to-day. 
Neither  is  it  the  question  whether  St  Luke  has  given  a 
complete  report  of  each  of  the  trials.  For  instance, 
TrpocTKvvriaodv  giving  the  object  of  the  journey  (xxiv.  11) 
is  immediately  completed  in  xxiv.  17  by  eXerj/uLocrvvas 
ttoujctodv  els  to  e'Ovos  fiov  kcu  7r/ooo-0o/)a?,  so  that  it  is 

unto  our  fathers  ;  unto  which  promise  our  twelve  tribes,  earnestly 
serving  God  night  and  day,  hope  to  attain.  And  concerning  this 
hope  I  am  accused  by  Jews,  0  king !  Why  is  it  judged  incredible 
with  you  if  God  doth  raise  the  dead  ?  I  verily  thought  with  myself 
that  I  ought  to  do  many  things  contrary  to  the  name  of  Jesus  of 
Nazareth,"  etc. 


84  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

impossible  to  suppose  that  St  Luke  has  some  purpose 
in  writing  only  7rpoaKvvwcov  in  the  first  passage ;  while 
from  xxiv.  24  f.,  xxv.  19,  and  xxvi.  22  f.  it  follows  that 
the  Messianic  hope  and  the  witness  to  Jesus  must  have 
played  a  great  part  in  the  different  speeches  of  St  Paul,1 
even  if  St  Luke  did  not  go  into  them  in  great  detail. 
Finally,  it  is  not  the  question  whether  St  Luke,  with 
special  pleasure  and  satisfaction,  emphasised  in  the  dis- 
courses of  St  Paul  those  elements  which  present  difficulty 
to  many  persons  in  these  days :  he  indeed  rejoices  in 
them,  and  reproduces  them  with  an  emphasis  perhaps 
surpassing  the  intention  of  St  Paul,  who  himself  used 
them  more  by  way  of  introduction.  No :  our  concern 
is  rather  with  the  question  whether  St  Paul  when  on 
his  trial  could  have  advanced,  and  whether  he  did 
actually  advance,  in  his  defence  the  statements  and 
arguments  recorded  by  St  Luke. 

Here  we  must  again  remember  Rom.  xi.  and  other 
passages  also  in  the  epistles  which  bear  witness  to  the 
Apostle's  Jewish  feeling  and  sympathy.  The  whole 
salvation  brought  by  Jesus  Christ  was  for  him  the 
fulfilment  of  the  promises  made  to  the  people  of  Israel, 
and  he  felt  that  he  himself,  together  with  the  Jews  who 
had  become  Christians,  formed  the  people  and  the  good 
olive  tree,  while  the  unbelieving  he  regarded  as  apostate 

1  ' '  Felix  heard  him  concerning  the  faith  in  Christ  Jesus.  And  as  he 
reasoned  of  righteousness,  etc. ,  .  .  ."  "  But  they  had  certain  questions 
against  him  of  their  own  religion,  and  of  one  Jesus,  who  was  dead, 
whom  Paul  affirmed  to  be  alive.  ..."  "I  say  nothing  but  what  the 
Prophets  and  Moses  did  say  should  come,  how  that  the  Christ  must 
suffer,  and  how  that  he  first  by  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  should  pro- 
claim light  both  to  the  people  and  the  Gentiles." 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE   ACTS   85 

and,  for  the  time  being,  hardened  in  heart.  Could  he 
now,  as  he  stood  before  a  Jewish  court,  take  up  another 
position,  and,  in  order  to  avoid  a  charge  of  deception, 
describe  the  unbelieving  Jews  as  the  people  of  Israel, 
and  himself  and  his  companions  in  faith  as  innovators 
and  therefore  as  a  sect  ?  He  neither  wished  to  do  nor 
could  do  that !  Accordingly  he  proclaimed  himself  and 
his  Jewish  fellow-Christians  to  be  the  true  Jews  accord- 
ing to  the  same  principle  that  Luther  and  Melanchthon 
proclaimed  themselves  to  be  the  true  and  ancient 
Catholic  Church  !  So  also  the  opponents  of  Luther  and 
some  of  the  radical  critics  of  his  days  felt  this  to  be 
hypocrisy,  just  like  the  Jews  of  Jerusalem  and  some 
present-day  exponents  of  the  criticism  of  the  New 
Testament  in  the  case  before  us! 

In  regard  to  the  point  that  in  St  Paul's  speeches  in 
his  defence  the  whole  controversy  is  represented  as 
turning  on  the  Resurrection,1  it  is  not  at  all  improbable 

1  The  discrepancy  between  the  accusation  of  the  Jews  and  the  defence 
made  by  St  Paul  is  obvious.  The  Jews  brought  against  St  Paul  the 
accusation  (xxi.  21)  that  he  taught  the  Jews  of  the  Diaspora  to  forsake 
Moses,  not  to  circumcise  their  children,  and  to  give  up  the  Jewish 
customs  (xxi.  28);  that  he  taught  everywhere  against  the  nation  and 
the  Law  and  the  Temple  which  he  had  defiled  (xxiv.  5  f. ) ;  that  he  stirred 
up  insurrection  among  all  the  Jews  throughout  the  world  ;  that  he  was 
the  leader  of  a  new  sect  and  had  attempted  to  profane  the  Temple  ; 
while  St  Paul  in  his  reply  simply  maintains  that  he  stands  before 
them  in  defence  of  the  Resurrection  brought  about  by  Jesus.  But 
is  St  Paul  the  first  defendant  who  has  avoided  the  thema  accusationis 
and  has  taken  up  another  position  because  he  hoped  in  this  way  to 
make  a  more  telling  defence — indeed,  because  it  was  impossible  to  make 
his  defence  in  any  other  way  ?  At  all  events  no  mention  can  be  made 
here  of  dissimulation,  for  the  actual  terms  of  the  accusation  were 
notorious.     If  Luther  at  the  end  of  his  life  had  been  obliged  to  defend 


86  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

that  the  Apostle  really  spoke  in  this  way.  St  Paul, 
whenever  he  did  speak,  spoke  as  a  missionary ;  at  the 
moment  he  had  before  him  the  rulers  of  his  nation, 
together  with  a  part  of  the  Pharisees.  His  object  was 
to  gain  them  over.  This  he  could  do  best  in  that  he 
proclaimed  that  he  was  able  to  show  in  the  clearest 
way  that  the  highest  hope  of  pious  Israelites  and  of  the 
Pharisees  was  no  longer  a  mere  hope  but  was  already 
fulfilled,  and  that  his  opponents  were  in  danger  of 
losing  this  hope  through  their  unbelief.  Accordingly, 
not  a  shadow  of  fault  can  be  found  with  his  apology 
when  once  it  is  realised  that  the  way  that  he  chooses 
is  the  royal  road  laid  out  in  accordance  with  the  deepest 
significance  of  his  teaching.  It  is  also  the  way  which 
he  seems  always  to  take  in  his  missionary  teaching. 
Even  at  Athens,  Jesus  and  the  Anastasis  are  felt  by 
his  hearers  to  be  the  central  subjects  of  his  discourse 
(xvii.  18,  32) ;  the  only  difference  lies  in  the  fact  that 
in  the  discourse  before  a  Gentile  audience  the  Resur- 
rection wrought  through  Jesus  forms  the  conclusion, 
while  in  a  discourse  before  Jews  the  Resurrection 
could  form  the  beginning,  the  middle,  and  the  end. 
No  one  who  remembers  1  Cor.  xv.  will  be  so  petty  as 
to  call  St  Luke  to  account  if  he  does  not  always 
mention  the  name  of  our  Lord  when  he  makes  St  Paul 

himself  before  the  Emperor  and  the  court  of  the  Empire  against  his 
Roman  accusers,  would  be  have  taken  the  charges  hurled  against  him 
as  the  basis  of  his  defence  ?  Certainly  not !  He  also  would  have 
deduced  from  the  alleged  charges  the  real  charge,  and  by  its  means 
would  have  turned  the  accusers  into  the  accused,  as  he  declared  their 
want  of  faith  in  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  in  His  power  to  overcome 
sin,  death,  and  the  devil.    This  was  just  what  St  Paul  did. 


LUKAN  AUTHORSHIP  OF  THE  ACTS    87 

speak  of  the  Resurrection ;  and  he  who  never  forgets 
that  St  Paul  is  the  missionary  who  would  gain  souls 
will  find  nothing  to  object  to  in  these  accounts  of  the 
Acts.  Whenever  the  Resurrection  was  spoken  of,  our 
Lord,  as  a  matter  of  course,  formed  for  St  Paul,  for 
St  Luke,  and  for  the  listeners  the  efficient  cause.  We 
may  even  believe  that  St  Paul,  at  the  beginning  of  his 
discourse,  said  roundly,  "Touching  the  Resurrection 
of  the  dead  I  stand  here  called  in  question  " ;  for  Luther 
also  declared  a  hundred  times  that  he  was  called  in 
question  touching  the  merits  and  the  honour  of  Jesus 
Christ,  while  his  opponents  asserted  that  these  things 
did  not  come  at  all  into  the  question.  Lastly,  a  great 
deal  has  also  been  made  of  "  /  am  a  Pharisee  "  (xxiii.  6). 
It  is  possible  that  St  Luke  has  here  made  St  Paul  say 
too  much,  but  it  is  also  possible  that  the  Apostle  really 
began  his  speech  in  this  way,  just  as  he,  mutatis  mutandis, 
represented  himself  to  the  Athenians  as  a  worshipper 
of  the  unknown  God  whom  they  already  worshipped. 
In  neither  instance  is  St  Paul  guilty  of  a  somewhat 
dubious  captatio  benevolentice ;  he  only  introduces  his 
discourse  with  a  paradoxical  and  impressive  statement 
which  contains  a  part  of  the  truth,  and  which  receives 
in  the  rest  of  the  speech  the  limitation  which  is  neces- 
sary to  guard  it  from  misapprehension.  In  so  far  as 
the  Apostle  believed  in  the  Resurrection  of  the  dead 
he  was  still  a  Pharisee ;  indeed,  he  and  his  fellow  Jewish 
Christians  were  the  only  true  Pharisees,  because  they 
acknowledged  Jesus  the  Messiah  who  alone  could 
bring  about  this  Resurrection  and  who  had  Himself 
already  risen  from  the  dead. 


88  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Our  conclusion,  therefore,  is  that  the  author  of 
the  Acts,  in  his  description  of  St  Paul's  relations  with 
Judaism,  is  in  essential  agreement  with  St  Paul's 
own  epistles.  This  has  not  been  recognised  because 
St  Paul's  Jewish  limitations  have  not  been  recognised, 
and  because  under  the  influence  of  the  Tendenzkritik 
the  records  of  the  author  of  the  Acts  have  not  been 
received  and  investigated  with  perfect  impartiality. 
Both  from  the  Pauline  epistles  and  from  the  Acts 
of  the  Apostles  we  learn  that  the  Apostle  came 
into  direct  conflict  with  Judaism  just  because  he 
conceded  too  much  to  Judaism.  His  Jewish  limita- 
tions were  his  ruin !  In  this  sense  he  stands  for  a 
stage  of  transition  in  the  history  of  the  development 
of  Christianity  from  Judaism  to  an  independent 
religion.  This  implies  no  depreciation  of  the  Apostle ! 
Even  a  personality  of  the  most  original  power 
cannot  itself  draw  the  logical  consequences  of  its 
own  significance;  in  this  respect  it  can  only  work  as 
a  pioneer,  because  it  is  always  encumbered  with  the 
burden  of  the  past.  We  learn  this  truth  concerning 
St  Paul  more  clearly  from  the  Acts  than  from  his  own 
epistles,  though  it  is  true  that  the  attentive  reader  will 
learn  it  here  also.  It  is,  however,  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  alone  that  we  see  the  Apostle  in  concrete 
relationship  with  Judaism;  no  such  opportunity  is 
afforded  us  in  the  epistles.  If,  however,  the  author  of 
the  Acts  shows  himself  trustworthy  in  this  important 
point,  it  follows  that  his  work  has  in  this  respect  also 
a  priceless  value,  and  that  the  argument  advanced 
against  the  identity  of  St  Luke  with  the  author  of  the 


LUKAN   AUTHORSHIP   OF  THE   ACTS    89 

Acts  of  the  Apostles,  because  of  the  book's  untrust- 
worthiness  on  this  point,  falls  to  pieces.1 

1  There  only  remains  Jiilicher's  argument  that  no  companion  nor 
friend  of  St  Paul  could  have  represented  him  as  "  the  colourless, 
rhetorical  type  of  an  average  Christian,"  such  as  the  author  of  the  Acts 
portrays  him.  I,  for  my  part,  acknowledge  that  I  cannot  discover  the 
perfect  and  complete  Paul  in  the  Acts,  but  I  find  Jiilicher's  opinion 
concerning  the  Paul  of  St  Luke  as  little  to  the  point  and  as  unsatis- 
factory as  he  finds  St  Luke's  conception  of  St  Paul.  The  Paul  of  the 
Acts  is  certainly  not  colourless  and  rhetorical.  The  portrait  is  indeed 
wanting  in  depth  and  power  and  in  much  besides.  But  St  Luke  was 
interested  in  facts,  in  the  acts  wrought  by  the  spirit  of  God  through  St 
Paul  (vas  electionis).  He  did  not  in  his  book  occupy  himself  with  the 
character  of  St  Paul ;  and  he  would  scarcely  have  proved  himself  a 
good  painter  of  character  even  if  he  had  wished  to  attempt  the  task.  It 
is  not  every  Achilles  that  finds  a  Homer,  and  St  Paul  would  have 
required  a  greater  than  Augustine  for  his  biographer  !  St  Luke  gives 
a  simple  and  straightforward  account  of  the  things  which  seemed  to  him 
important.  His  touch  does  no  injury — his  representation  of  the 
Apostle  is  disfigured  by  no  unworthy  trait — but  we  should,  it  is  true, 
know  little  of  St  Paul  the  man  and  the  hero,  apart  from  his  own 
letters. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE   DATE   OF   THE    ACTS   OF   THE   APOSTLES   AND 
OF   THE    SYNOPTIC   GOSPELS 

In  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles  I  have  devoted  Excursus  V. 
(pp.  290-297)  to  the  question  of  the  date  of  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles.  I  there  came  to  the  following  conclusion  : 
"  These  are,  so  far  as  I  see,  the  most  important  argu- 
ments for  the  composition  of  the  Acts  at  the  beginning 
of  the  seventh  decade.  On  the  other  side  —  unless 
prejudice  or  'critical  intuition,1  things  that  we  of 
course  cannot  search  into,  are  brought  into  play — we 
have  simply  the  considerations  that  the  prophecy  con- 
cerning the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  coincides  in  some 
remarkable  points  with  what  really  happened,  and  that 
the  accounts  of  the  appearance  of  the  Risen  Christ  and 
the  legend  of  the  Ascension  are  scarcely  intelligible  on 
the  assumption  that  they  arose  before  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem.  A  further  great  difficulty  lies  outside 
the  Lukan  writings,  but  at  once  announces  itself.  Is  it 
possible  that  the  gospel  of  St  Mark,  the  source  of  St 
Luke,  could  have  been  written  about  the  year  a.d.  60 — 
this  would  be  the  latest  date  on  the  assumption  of  the 
earlier  date  for  St  Luke  ?     I  cannot  here  enter  into  this 

90 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  91 

question.  These  remarks,  which  contain  scarcely  any- 
thing that  is  new,  though  much  that  has  not  been 
sufficiently  considered,  are  only  intended  to  help  a  doubt 1 
to  its  just  dues.  It  is  not  difficult  to  judge  on  which 
side  lies  the  greater  weight  of  argument ;  but  we  must 
remember  that  in  such  cases  of  doubt  the  more  far- 
reaching  are  the  effects  of  definite  decision,  the  greater 
is  the  demand  for  caution.  Therefore  for  the  present 
we  must  be  content  to  say :  St  Luke  wrote  at  the  time 
of  Titus,  or  in  the  earlier  years  of  Domitian ;  perhaps, 
however,  even  so  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
decade  of  the  first  century.  The  political  rule,  Quieta 
non  movere,  does  not  hold  good  for  science.  She  must 
therefore  determine  also  to  submit  this  question  to  fresh 
investigation  or — if  convincing  arguments  are  wanting 
— to  leave  it  open.11 

From  these  words  it  is  clear  that  I  felt  that  the 
earlier  date  for  the  Lukan  writings  was  by  far  the  more 
probable.  But  it  was  not  want  of  courage  that  caused 
me  to  express  myself  so  cautiously  ;  I  was  not  yet  clear 
as  to  the  weight  to  be  ascribed  to  the  opposing  argu- 
ments, and  I  had  not  yet  come  to  an  assured  opinion  as 
to  the  date  of  the  gospel  of  St  Mark. 

I  could  not,  however,  be  surprised  that  others  declared 
themselves  fully  convinced  by  the  strong  arguments  for 
the  early  date  of  the  Lukan  writings.  Not  only  did 
Delbriick  at  once  charge  me  with  expressing  myself 
with  unnecessary  self-restraint  concerning  a  question 
which  had  been  already  absolutely  determined  by  my- 

1  That  is,  the  doubt  as  to  what  has  been  hitherto  an  axiom  of 
criticism,  that  the  date  was  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 


92  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

self,  but  also  Maurenbrecher  recognised  in  my  investiga- 
tions the  solution  of  the  chronological  problem.  In 
his  work  Von  Nazareth  nach  Golgotha  (1909),  S.  22-30, 
he  gives  an  excellent  and  impressive  resume"  of  the  most 
important  points  that  I  had  put  forward  in  favour  of 
an  early  date  for  the  Acts,  and  he  concludes  as  follows  : 
"  The  hypothesis  (of  a  later  date  and  of  the  historical 
worthlessness  of  the  Lukan  writings)  has  lately  fallen 
more  and  more  out  of  favour,  and  is  now  utterly  and 
entirely  refuted  and  discredited  as  the  result  of  a 
thorough  investigation  by  Professor  Harnack.  Indeed, 
we  may  say  that  the  Acts  has,  from  every  point  of  view, 
been  proved  to  be,  if  not  quite  unconditionally  trust- 
worthy, still  of  very  early  date.  And  if  Professor 
Harnack  himself,  with  hesitation,  and  only  at  the  close 
of  his  work,  points  out  the  bearing  of  his  conclusions 
upon  the  question  of  the  date  of  the  Acts,  we  must 
nevertheless  say  that  both  the  concluding  sentence 
of  the  Acts,  and  the  whole  tenor  of  the  book,  only 
become  intelligible  when  explained  in  the  way  Professor 
Harnack  suggests,  and  that  therefore,  on  the  sole  ground 
of  this  piece  of  external  testimony,  the  date  62  a.d.  (i.e. 
towards  the  end  of  the  second  year  after  St  Paul's 
arrival  in  Rome)  must  be  regarded  as  proved  and  not 
merely  as  possible.''''  Maurenbrecher  then  proceeds  to 
show  that  no  weighty  objection  can  be  raised  against  a 
date  of  about  60  a.d.  for  the  gospel  of  St  Mark — a 
date  which  is  necessarily  presupposed  by  the  earlier 
dating  of  the  Lukan  writings. 

Since  the  appearance  of  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles  I 
have  continued  the  study  of  the  chronological  problem, 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  93 

and — directed  by  some  fresh  points  that  I  have  noticed 
— I  have  now  come  to  believe  that  there  is  a  high 
degree  of  probability  in  favour  of  an  early  date  for  the 
Lukan  writings.  I  am  therefore  compelled  to  attack 
the  problem  afresh  and  to  come  to  a  definite  decision. 
If  the  solution  which  I  propose  must  have  the  effect  of 
revolution  within  the  sphere  of  criticism,  the  revolution 
is  one  only  of  chronology — the  study  of  the  history 
of  the  formation  of  tradition  is,  indeed,  somewhat  modi- 
fied thereby,  yet  not  considerably  affected :  the  decayed 
beams  of  a  building  are  not  made  stronger  and  better 
by  the  proof  that  they  are  older  than  was  at  first 
thought!  Moreover,  in  reality  it  ought  not  to  be 
called  a  revolution ;  for  the  views  which  I  am  about 
to  set  forth  are  the  result  of  a  slow  evolution  of  more 
than  fifteen  years  (vide  the  preface  to  the  first  volume 
of  my  Chronologie  der  altchristlichen  Literatur,  May 
1896),  and  the  stages  of  this  evolution  have  not 
remained  unknown  to  those  who  are  interested  in  such 
subjects. 

1.  The  Conclusion  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  and 
its  Silence  concerning  the  Result  of  St  Paul's 
Trial 

The  conclusion  of  the  Acts  (xxviii.  30,  31)  must 
always  form  the  starting-point  for  an  attempt  to 
ascertain  the  date  of  the  work ;  it  runs  as  follows : 
T&vefAeivev  [al  efieivev]  Se  [6  IlauXo?]  Sierlav  oXtjv  ev  iSlw 
fiiaOdoimaTi  kcu  cnreSexero  Travra?  eio"7ropevo[x.evov$  7r/oo? 
olvtov,  KTjpvcrcrow  Ttjv  ffoxriXelav  rov  Oeov  kcu  SiSoktkoov  Ta 
7repl  tov  Kvplov  'Itj(rov  X-picrTOv  fiera  Trdo-rjs  Trapptjcrlas 


94  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

a*co)XuTw?.  It  has,  so  far  as  I  know,  never  been 
questioned  that  these  words  proceed  from  the  author 
of  the  complete  work  even  though  they  have  the 
appearance  of  a  postscript — the  real  conclusion  of  the 
book  is  xxviii.  25-28.  Moreover,  in  content  and  form 
they  agree  so  closely  with  the  Lukan  style  that  from 
this  point  of  view  strong  arguments  can  be  produced  in 
favour  of  their  genuineness.1  The  first  impression  that 
one  receives  from  this  notice  will  continue  to  hold  the 
field  against  all  other  possibilities — the  impression, 
namely,  that  these  words  were  written  directly  after  the 
expiration  of  the  Sterlet  o\t].  This  also  is  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  aorist  eve/ueivev  (cf.  xviii.  11  :  eKaOio-ev  Se 
eviavrbv  kcu  /urjvas  e£  SiSdaKcov) ;  it  shows  that  the 
situation  is  now  changed.2  Whether  the  change  con- 
sisted in  this,  that  the  Apostle  had  now  left  Rome,  or 
in  this,  that  his  situation  of  comparative  liberty  was 
now  exchanged  for  one  of  greater  restriction  (Blass),  we 

1  The  construction  of  the  two  verses  coincides  completely  with  that 
of  other  statements  of  the  author  concerning  the  duration  and  the 
character  of  the  Apostle's  ministry  in  large  centres,  vide  xi.  26  ;  xviii, 
11  ;  xix.  9,  10  ;  xxiv.  23,  27.  'Efififvav  is  only  found  again  in  Acts 
xiv.  22  (in  Gal.  iii.  10  and  Heb.  viii.  9  it  occurs  in  quotations  from  the 
Old  Testament). — tttrlav,  vide  xxiv.  27:  Bitnds  ir\Tip<i>0el(rr)s.—8\riv, 
vide  xi.  26  :  Iviavrbv  8\ov. — iv  ISiw  nitT0<&(j.aTi,  vide  xxi.  6,  also  i.  7. — 
&ir*8eXero>  v^e  xxi-  17  ;  xviii.  27  ;  xv.  4. — rovs  tiffiropevo/j.eyovs  irpbs 
ahriv,  vide  St  Luke  viii.  16  ;  xi.  33  ;  xix.  30  ;  xxii.  10 ;  Acts  iii.  2  ; 
viii.  3  ;  ix.  28. — Kr\pvaamv  r«  fiacriX-  r-  8tov  «•  SiSacr/cwv  ra  xtpl  t-  icvp- 
'I-  Xp.,  specifically  Lukan,  vide  xx.  25  ;  xviii.  25,  and  elsewhere. — fitra. 
ied<rris  ttapptjalas,  vide  ii.  29 ;  iv.  13  ;  iv.  29  (/u€t4  wappTjirias  iriaris 
\a\(?v) ;  iv.  31. 

2  If  the  situation  were  still  continuing  at  the  time  St  Luke  wrote, 
then  the  present  or  the  imperfect  would  have  been  the  proper  tense 
to  use. 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  95 

cannot  tell  without  further  information.  However,  the 
settling  of  this  point  is  not  of  great  importance,  for  in 
either  case  only  quite  a  short  time  can  have  elapsed 
since  the  expiration  of  the  Sterlet  oXy.  If  a  longer 
time  had  elapsed  the  chronicler  would  have  been 
obliged  to  relate  either  the  place  to  which  the  Apostle 
had  now  turned  his  steps  or  the  nature  of  the  greater 
restrictions  to  which  he  was  now  subjected.  It  is  more 
probable x  that  the  Apostle  remained  in  Rome ;  for  if 
the  two  years  marked  the  whole  length  of  the  Apostle's 
stay  in  Rome,  and  if  he  had  already  begun  a  new 
ministry  in  another  place,  it  is  not  very  easy  to  explain 
why  St  Luke  did  not  simply  say :  "  After  two  years  of 

unhindered  activity  Paul  left  Rome  and  went  to ." 

Thus,  according  to  the  concluding  verses,  the  Acts  was 
written  very  soon  after  the  day  on  which  St  Paul  was 
condemned  to  leave  his  hired  lodging ;  "foriasse  iam  in 
prcetorium  traductus  erat  instabatque  prope  vudiemm^ 

In  this  case  there  is  no  need  to  ask  why  St  Luke  has 
not  narrated  the  course  of  the  trial,  the  events  which 
followed,  and  the  death  of  the  Apostle ;  on  any  other 
supposition,  however,  tremendous  difficulties  present 
themselves.  We  cannot  make  too  much  of  them ! 
Throughout  eight  whole  chapters  St  Luke  keeps  his 
readers  intensely  interested  in  the  progress  of  the  trial 
of  St  Paul,  simply  that  he  may  in  the  end  completely 
disappoint  them — they  learn  nothing  of  the  final  result 
of  the  trial !  Such  a  procedure  is  scarcely  less  inde- 
fensible than  that  of  one  who  might  relate  the  history 

1  I  have  expressed  a  different  opinion  in  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  pp. 
40  f.,  294  n.  1. 


96  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

of  our  Lord  and  close  the  narrative  with  His  delivery 
to  Pilate,  because  Jesus  had  now  been  brought  up 
to  Jerusalem  and  had  made  His  appearance  before 
the  chief  magistrate  in  the  capital  city !  One  may 
object  that  the  end  of  the  Apostle  was  universally 
known,  or  one  may  also  say  that  when  the  author  had 
brought  St  Paul  to  Rome  he  had  attained  the  goal  that 
he  sets  before  himself  in  his  book.1  For  many  years  I 
was  content  to  soothe  my  intellectual  conscience  with 
such  expedients ; 2  but  in  truth  they  altogether  trans- 

1  As  Clemen  still  says  (loc.  cit.,  p.  798):  "  His  death  is  left  aside, 
not  because  it  happened  only  later  or  was  to  be  narrated  in  a  third 
volume,  but  simply  because  it  was  out  of  place  here.  The  author  of 
Acts  had  set  before  himself  the  task  of  describing  the  propagation  of 
the  Gospel  from  Jerusalem  to  Rome  us  he  understood  it ;  this  task  he 
has  fulfilled  in  delineating  Paul's  appearance  and  activity  there." 
This  view  is  plausible  ;  but  that  is  all  that  can  be  said,  for  it  leaves 
out  of  consideration  the  fact  of  decisive  importance,  namely,  that  in 
the  last  half  of  the  book  the  trial  of  St  Paul  has  become  the  subject 
which  overshadows  all  others,  and  that  it  is  against  all  the  laws  of 
psychology  to  suppose  that  the  author  could  have  been  so  much  master 
of  himself  as  to  suppress  the  account  of  the  result  of  the  trial,  because, 
according  to  the  general  plan  of  his  work,  its  mention  was  not  necessary. 
Clemen  then  adds  in  a  note  that,  in  spite  of  xxviii.  15,  it  follows  from 
xxviii.  21  that  the  author  entertained  the  false  opinion  that  the  Church 
in  Rome  was  "firmly  established  only  by  Paul,"  and  that  this  is  a 
final  and  conclusive  argument  against  the  Lukan  authorship.  But  he 
has  overlooked  the  fact  that  xxviii.  21  is  concerned  simply  with  the 
leaders  of  Judaism,  and  that  we  cannot  deduce  therefrom  anything  that 
would  disturb  the  actual  situation  presupposed  by  xxviii.  15.  More- 
over, this  question  no  longer  concerns  us,  seeing  that  our  present 
investigation  assumes  the  Lukan  authorship,  and  has  as  its  sole  object 
the  discovery  of  the  date  of  the  book. 

2  Worse  than  these  two  are  four  others :  (1)  that  St  Luke  did  not  wish 
to  relate  the  martyrdom  of  St  Paul  lest  the  impression  the  book  gives 
of  the  friendly  attitude  of  the  Roman  Government  should  be  thereby 
affected,  or  (2)  that  he  broke  off  at  this  point  because  he  had  not 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  97 

gress  against  inward  probability  and  all  the  psycho- 
logical laws  of  historical  composition.  The  more 
clearly  we  see  that  the  trial  of  St  Paul,  and  above  all 
his  appeal  to  Caesar,  is  the  chief  subject  of  the  last 
quarter  of  the  Acts,  the  more  hopeless  does  it  appear 
that  we  can  explain  why  the  narrative  breaks  off  as  it 
does,  otherwise  than  by  assuming  that  the  trial  had 
actually  not  yet  reached  its  close.  It  is  no  use  to 
struggle  against  this  conclusion.  If  St  Luke,  in  the 
year  80,  90,  or  100,  wrote  thus  he  was  not  simply  a 
blundering  but  an  absolutely  incomprehensible  his- 
torian !  Moreover,  we  note  that  nowhere  in  the  Acts 
is  either  St  Peter  or  St  Paul  so  treated  as  if  his 
death  was  presupposed;  we  indeed  rather  receive  the 
contrary  impression.  Neither  is  the  slightest  reference 
made  to  the  martyrdom  of  St  Paul !  St  Luke  allows 
Agabus  to  foretell  a  famine,  to  foretell  St  PauTs  im- 
prisonment in  Jerusalem ;  he  suffers  St  Paul  himself  (on 
the  voyage)  to  foretell,  like  a  fortune-teller,  the  fate  of 
the  ship  and  all  its  passengers ;  he  in  many  chapters 
of  the  book  deals  in  all  kinds  of  "  spiritual "  utterances 
and  prophecies — but  not  one  word  is  said  concerning 
the  final  destiny  of  St  Paul  (and  of  St  Peter) !  Is  this 
natural?    There   are   prophecies   concerning  events  of 

sufficient  paper,  or  (3)  because  he  was  interrupted  in  his  composition, 
or  (4)  that  he  intended  to  write  a  third  book  (so  Zahn  and  others). 
The  last  expedient  is  perhaps  the  most  plausible  ;  and  yet  even  this  is 
quite  unsatisfactory,  because  an  hypothesis,  for  which  there  is  no  other 
evidence — the  trpurov  of  Acts  i.  1  is  no  proof — and  against  which  there 
is  much  to  be  said,  has  to  be  invented  ad  hoc,  and  because  the  place 
where  the  narrative  now  breaks  off  is  as  unsuitable  as  it  possibly  can 
be.     The  readers  are  kept  upon  the  rack. 

7 


98  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

minor  importance,  while  there  is  nothing  about  the 
great  event  of  all !  There  is  no  doubt  that  directly 
after  the  death  of  the  Apostles  legends  grew  up  which 
included  prophecies  of  their  martyrdom.  Concerning  St 
Peter  we  know  of  two  (St  John  xxi.,  2  Peter  i.),  and 
St  Paul  himself  gave  expression  to  forebodings  of  his 
violent  death.  How,  then,  could  a  chronicler  of  the 
character  of  St  Luke  have  overlooked  this  if  St  Paul 
had  already  attained  to  the  crown  of  martyrdom ! 
Instead,  he  offers  us  simply  such  prophetic  warnings  as 
those  of  the  brethren  that  St  Paul  must  not  go  to 
Jerusalem,  and  the  prophecy  of  St  Paul  himself  that 
his  children  in  Asia  would  see  his  face  again  no  more 
(vide  infra) ;  while  in  all  the  long  speeches  of  the  last 
chapters  he,  with  disconcerting  reticence,  leaves  it 
absolutely  indefinite  whether  the  transference  of  the 
trial  from  Caesarea  to  Rome  will  lead  to  condemnation, 
nor  in  the  slightest  incident  of  his  narrative  does  he 
betray  the  final  outcome !  Is  such  behaviour  on  the 
part  of  our  author  intelligible  ?  is  it,  indeed,  intelligible 
on  the  part  of  any  historian  ?  Have  those  who  assign 
the  book  to  the  end  of  the  century  clearly  realised 
these  difficulties,  and  do  they  think  that  they  are  really 
removed  by  any  one  of  the  six  artificial  expedients 
mentioned  above  ?  Besides  the  natural  solution  that 
the  trial  was  already  undecided  when  St  Luke  wrote, 
I  regard,  in  abstractor  only  one  other  as  possible,  namely, 
that  the  writer  not  only  wished  to  pass  as  an  eye- 
witness but  also  to  give  the  impression  that  he  was 
writing  during  St  Paul's  life  and  while  the  trial  was 
still  proceeding.     But  this  "  seventh  "  way  of  escape  is 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  99 

blocked ;  for  the  amateurish  attempts  which  have  been 
again  made  lately  to  prove  that  the  "  we "  of  the  Acts 
is  a  forgery  by  appealing  to  the  analogy  of  certain 
falsified  "  we  "-accounts  cannot  be  taken  seriously, 
and  are  not  worthy  of  formal  refutation.  We  are 
accordingly  left  with  the  result :  that  the  concluding 
verses  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ',  taken  in  conjunction 
with  the  absence  of  any  reference  in  the  booh  to  the  result 
of  the  trial  of  St  Paul  and  to  his  martyrdom,  make  it  in 
the  highest  degree  probable  that  the  work  was  written  at 
a  time  when  St  PauTs  trial  in  Rome  had  not  yet  come  to 
an  end. 

2.  Further  Negative  Indications  in  Favour  of 
an  Early  Date  for  the  Acts 

Not  only  is  the  slightest  reference  to  the  outcome  of 
the  trial  of  St  Paul  absent  from  the  book,  but  not  even 
a  trace  is  to  be  discovered  of  the  rebellion  of  the  Jews 
in  the  seventh  decade  of  the  century,  of  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  and  the  Temple,  of  Nero^  persecution  of 
the  Christians,  and  of  other  important  events  that  oc- 
curred in  the  seventh  decade  of  the  first  century.1  We 
must,  moreover,  combine  this  negative  testimony  to  an 
early  date  with  the  positive  indication  that  the  Jews 
never  appear  in  this  book  as  the  oppressed  and  perse- 
cuted, but  rather  as  the  beati  possidentes  and  the 
persecutors.  How  remarkable  that  a  vivacious  writer 
like  St  Luke,  and  one  so  fond  of  giving  prophecies  of 
events,   should   remain   so   "objective11  as   to    betray 

1  Maurenbrecher  rightly  lays  great  stress  on  this  point,  loc.  cit., 
p.  23. 


100  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

nothing  of  what  happened  in  70  a.d.  and  the  years 
immediately  preceding !  Nay,  more,  at  the  conclusion 
of  his  book  he  feels  called  upon  to  proclaim  in  the  most 
solemn  form  the  prophecy  of  judgment  upon  the  Jewish 
nation;  and  yet  he  does  this  simply  in  the  words  of 
Isaiah,  which  speak  of  the  hardening  of  the  heart  of  the 
nation  ;  there  is  not  one  hint  of  the  fact  that  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem  has  come  as  a  punishment  upon  the 
nation !  No  wonder  that  notable  exegetes  and  historians 
have  had  recourse  to  the  hypothesis  of  definite  political 
motive  on  the  part  of  St  Luke:  everything  in  the 
early  history  of  the  Christian  Church  must  be  made  to 
look  as  gentle  and  innocent  as  possible,  neither  the 
Roman  State  nor  Judaism  must  be  shocked,  and  so 
forth,  in  order  that  the  innocency  and  harmlessness  of 
the  Church  might  appear  in  clear  light.  We  must,  in 
fact,  fall  back  upon  such  an  unworthy  hypothesis  as 
this  if  it  is  supposed  that  St  Luke  wrote  after  70  a.d. 
and  yet  did  not  use  his  later  experience  to  illuminate 
the  earlier  history  of  the  Church.  But  in  reality  such  an 
hypothesis  has  nothing  in  its  favour  except  the  difficulty 
which  has  been  artificially  created  by  bringing  the  book 
down  to  a  later  date.  St  Luke^  absolute  silence  con- 
cerning everything  that  happened  between  the  years  64 
and  70  a.d.  is  a  strong  argument  for  the  hypothesis 
that  his  book  was  written  before  the  year  64  a.d. 

A  further  negative  indication  makes  its  appearance 
in  the  fact  that  no  use  is  made  of  the  Pauline  epistles, 
a  fact  that  suggests  that  the  date  of  the  Acts  should  be 
set  as  early  as  possible.  It  is  true  that  P.  W.  Schmidt 
{he,  cit.y  p.  35),  on  the  authority  of  Holtzmann,  wishes  to 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  101 

revive  the  hypothesis  that  dependence  upon  these  epistles 
can  be  traced  in  a  few  passages  of  the  Acts  (also  Clemen, 
he.  city  pp.  782  f. ;  yet  he  is  not  quite  sure),  but  in  no 
instance  is  the  evidence  sufficient.  In  iii.  25  it  is 
supposed  that  use  is  made  of  Gal.  iii.  8 ;  but  of  all 
St  Paul's  epistles  that  to  the  Galatians  is  most  foreign 
to  the  thought  of  St  Luke,  and  the  coincidence  here 
does  not  extend  beyond  the  common  quotation  of 
Gen.  xii.  3.  It  is  the  same  with  v.  30  (Gal.  iii.  13)  and 
x.  34  (Rom.  ii.  11);  the  only  real  coincidence  is  in  the 
quotations  Deut.  x.  17  and  xxi.  23.  It  is  more  worthy 
of  note  that  in  Acts  ix.  21,  as  in  Gal.  i.  13,  23,  the 
verb  Trop&eiv  is  used  to  describe  St  Paul's  earlier 
activity  as  a  persecutor ;  but  apart  from  the  fact  that 
the  word  is  not  rare,  one  is  justified  in  concluding  from 
these  passages  that  6  Siwkgov  ttotg  and  6  Tropdqarav  in  the 
mouth  of  St  Paul  and  of  Greek-speaking  Jewish 
Christians  had  become  almost  technical  expressions  for 
the  Paul  that  once  was.  How  often  may  St  Luke  have 
heard  them  from  the  lips  of  St  Paul  himself!  Acts  ix. 
24  f.  and  2  Cor.  xi.  32  f.,  except  for  the  words  reixos 
and  xaAa£a»>,  simply  coincide  in  the  event  they  record, 
so  that  there  is  no  need  to  assume  literary  dependence 
here,  especially  as  there  are  by  no  means  slight  differ- 
ences in  detail  between  the  two  passages.  The  epistles 
contain  many  passages  parallel  in  subject  matter  to 
Acts  x.  43  (a(p€o-iv  afxapricov  Xafieiv  Sia  tov  ovo/moito? 
avrov  TroLvra  tov  TricrrevovTa  «V  ovt6v\  but  we  are  not 
thereby  justified  in  concluding  that  this  passage  is 
dependent  upon  any  particular  passage  of  the  epistles ; 
and  the  less  so,  seeing  that  the  expression  is  not  strictly 


102  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Pauline  in  conception  (Sia  rod  ovo/iotos  avrov).  Acts 
xiii.  33  f.  is  parallel  in  subject  matter  to  Rom.  i.  4  and 
vi.  9 ;  this  likeness,  however,  like  the  whole  discourse 
of  which  the  passage  forms  part  (see  Weiss  on  the 
passage),  must  be  ascribed  to  the  writer's  general  recol- 
lection of  actual  Pauline  discourses — it  is  not  due  to 
dependence  upon  any  'particular  passage  of  the  epistles. 
How  it  can  be  said  that  Acts  xv.  24,  41  and  xx.  31 
thoroughly  establish  dependence  upon  St  Paul's  writings 
is  more  than  I  can  see.  As  for  the  speech  at  Miletus — 
the  very  point  which  is  characteristic  of  that  speech  is 
that  it  bears  a  strongly  Pauline  stamp,  and  yet  nowhere 
suggests  dependence  in  detail.  We  are  thus  left  with 
the  result  that  it  cannot  be  proved  that  the  author  of 
the  Acts  has  made  any  use  either  of  any  particular 
epistle,  or  of  the  collected  epistles  of  St  Paul — a  result 
of  no  slight  importance  for  the  chronological  problem. 
Schmidt,  however,  after  speaking  of  only  a  few  instances 
in  the  Acts  of  recollection  of  the  epistles  of  St  Paul, 
proceeds :  "  We  must  thus  suppose  a  time  at  which  a 
Gentile-Christian  author  of  some  importance  could 
write  about  the  Apostolic  times  so  as  to  make  it  evident 
that  the  epistles  of  St  Paul  no  longer  work  as  a  trans- 
forming leaven  in  his  own  soul  and  in  his  spiritual 
environment.'1  I  really  wonder  whether  Schmidt  will 
find  a  single  scholar  to  follow  him  in  this  critical  sally. 
He  himself  excepts  the  first  epistle  of  St  Clement,  and 
maintains  that  the  epistle  of  Barnabas  falls  into  a  later 
period  when  the  situation  had  again  changed  and  St 
Paul's  writings  had  come  into  power  again.  But  are 
not  Ignatius  and  Polycarp  very  decidedly  dependent 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  103 

upon  St  Paul,  and  "  St  John  "  no  less,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  Gnostics  ? 

3.  The  Importance  of  the  Passage  Acts  xx.  25 
(xx.  38)  in  determining  the  date  of  the  book 

In  this  passage  either  St  Luke  puts  into  St  Paul's 
mouth,  or  St  Paul  really  uttered,  a  prophecy  that  his 
Asiatic  friends  would  see  his  face  no  more.  If  the 
second  imprisonment  of  the  Apostle  is  regarded  as 
unhistorical,  then  this  prophecy  is  of  no  consequence  in 
determining  the  date  of  the  Acts.  If,  however,  the 
second  imprisonment  is  regarded  as  historical — and  this 
is  the  well-established  opinion  of  myself  and  of  many 
other  scholars — then  this  prophecy  is  refuted  by  the 
facts ; l  for,  according  to  2  Tim.  iv.,  St  Paul  came  once 
again  to  Asia.  Under  such  circumstances,  seeing  that 
the  further  course  of  St  Paul's  life  contradicted  the 
prophecy,  it  cannot  be  imagined  that  St  Luke  would 
have  reported  the  prophecy  or  would  have  placed  it 
in  the  mouth  of  St  Paul.  Hence,  on  the  assumption 
that  the  Apostle  was  released  from  his  first  captivity, 
the  passage  Acts  xx.  25  affords  strong  testimony  that 
St  Luke  wrote  previously  to  that  release. 

4.  Positive  Evidence  for  an  Early  Date 
drawn  from  terminology 

To  these  negative  indications  of  a  very  early  date 
for  the   Acts   we   now   add   a   series   of  positive   in- 

1  Zahn's  interpretation  of  Acts  xx.  25  (Einl.,  Bd.  I.,  S.  448),  and 
the  way  in  which  he  attempts  to  escape  from  our  conclusion  here,  are  to 
me  quite  incomprehensible. 


104  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

dications   which  hitherto  have  not  received   sufficient 
attention. 

(a)  'Iqcrovs,  6  Kv/noc,  6  Xpto-rof 

The  important  point  which  we  are  now  about  to 
discuss  has  been  already  touched  upon  in  my  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  p.  295,  but  it  deserves  the  most  careful 
attention,  and  ought  therefore  to  be  discussed  here  in 
full  detail.  The  names  used  for  our  Lord  in  the  Acts 
are  "  Jesus  "  and  "  the  Lord  " ;  on  the  other  hand,  the 
use  of  the  word  "Christ"  is  quite  characteristic:  to 
St  Luke  "  Christ "  is  not  a  proper  name  like  "  Jesus  " ;  he 
still  feels  to  the  full  that  it  means  "  the  Messiah?  and  in 
this  his  attitude  of  mind  is  even  more  primitive  than 
St  PauVs.1 

In  the  first  place,  we  are  surprised  to  find  how  rarely 
X/otcrroc  occurs  in  the  Acts.  In  all  it  occurs  only 
25  times.  Bruder's  Concordance,  indeed,  gives  34 
occurrences,  but  9  of  these  are  to  be  rejected  {vide 
the  critical  editions);  they,  however,  show  that  the 
copyists  missed  the  name  "  Christ "  and  were  zealous  in 
smuggling  it  into  the  book.  Compare  with  the  25 
passages  where  "  Christ "  occurs  the  threefold  number 
of  passages  where  "  Jesus "  is  found.  Coming  to  details, 
the  occurrences  of  " Christ"  are  of  the  following 
character:  "Jesus  Christ"  is  found  11  times  and 
"  Christ "  by  itself  only  14  times.  Of  the  11  occurrences 
7  are  of  the  nature  of  a  formula,  for  they  run  :  to  ovo/ua 

1  Again,  the  "  we  "-sections  and  the  remaining  parts  of  the  book  are 
simply  identical  in  this  respect,  which  is  a  point  of  great  importance. 
"  Christ"  is  not  found  in  the  "  we  "-sections  ;  but  in  xvi.  15  icipios  = 
'\y\ffovs,  and  in  xxi.  13  we  read :  rb  ivo^a  rod  Kvplov  'lyjcrov. 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  105 

'Itjctov  X/otcrTOu,1  hence  "  Jesus  Christ "  was  familiar  to 
St  Luke  only  in  formal  combination,  for  among  the 
4  remaining  occurrences  2  (xi.  17 ;  xxviii.  31)  are  also 
formal  in  character,  seeing  that  they  are  combined  with 
icvpios.  Only  in  ix.  34  and  x.  36  do  we  find  "Jesus 
Christ"  without  "  ovofia"  and  without  "o  Kvpios" ; 
the  former  occurrence,  however,  is  in  my  opinion  to  be 
rejected  on  the  authority  of  A  B3  EH  LP  61.  al.  pier., 
patres  Graeci,  so  that  only  x.  36  is  left.  But  in  the  14 
passages  zvhere  6  Xpio~TO$  stands  alone  it  everywhere 
means  the  Messiah,  and  never  has  the  signification  of  a 
proper  name.2.  Among  these  passages  5  are  most 
instructive,  where  "Jesus"  is  found  together  with 
"  Christ,"  but  in  peculiarly  loose  connection  : 

iii.  20  :  aTroa-relXn  tov  TrpoKexeipi<rp.evov  vp.lv  X/ottrro'i/, 

^Itjcrovv. 
v.  42  :  evayye\i£o/JLevoi  tov  Xyoto-roV,  vjcrovv. 
xvii.  3 :  oti  ovtos  ea-Ttv  6  X/cuo-to?,  o  'I^crouy,  ov  eyo> 

KarayyiXXw  v/xlv. 
xviii.    5 :    Sia/u.apTvp6/j.evos   roh  'lovSalois   eluai   tov 

Xpia-Tov  Irjaovv  (vide  ix.  22). 
xviii.  28  :  eTrtSeiicvvs  ehai  tov  ILpurTov  Ivarovv. 

St  Luke  accordingly  only  uses  the  expression  "  Jesus 
Christ"  (with  the  exception  of  one  passage)  in  two 
formal  combinations ;  he  himself  calls  our  Lord  "  Jesus  " 
and  "  the  Lord."  If  he  describes  him  as  "  Christ "  he 
counts  upon  his  readers  knowing  what  this  official  title 

1  ii.  38 ;  iii.  6  ;  iv.  10  ;  viii.  12 ;  x.  48 ;  xv.  26 ;  xvi.  18. 

2  ii.  31,  36  ;  iii.  18,  20  ;  iv.  26  ;  v.  42 ;  viii.  5  ;  ix.  22  ;  xvii.  3  (bis) ; 
xviii.  5,  28  ;  xxiv.  24  ('lri<rovv  is  not  genuine) ;  xxvi.  23. 


106  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

means;  for  he  postulates  it  as  an  official  title.  This 
is  an  attitude  which,  as  has  been  said,  St  Paul  no  longer 
adopts  nor  any  Gentile  Christian  after  him.  It  is 
primitive,  it  presupposes  a  circle  of  readers  which  was 
still  in  connection  with  Judaism ;  or,  rather,  it 
characterises  an  author  who  had  not  yet  been  forced,  in 
the  interest  of  the  majority  of  his  readers,  to  take  the 
fateful  step  of  treating  "  Christ "  as  a  proper  name.1 

(b)  '0  vats  deov 

In  the  four  gospels,  in  the  epistles  of  the  New 
Testament,  and  in  the  Apocalypse,  except  in  the  quota- 
tion from  Isaiah  (xlii.  1)  in  St  Matt.  xii.  18,  our 
Lord  is  never  called  6  irak  deov,2  but  always  "  the  Son  " ; 
however,  in  Acts  iii.  13,  26;  iv.  27,  30  he  is  called 
6  7rcu?  6eov.z  This  is  extremely  primitive ;  for  it  is  only 
found  elsewhere  in  the  primitive  prayers  of  the  first 
epistle  of  St  Clement,  of  the  Didache,  and  of  the  Mart. 
Polycarpi.4  Where  it  occurs  in  later  literature  it  is  de- 
pendent upon  this  tradition.     Therefore,  just  as  St  Luke 

1  Vide  B.  "Weiss,  Bill.  Theologie  8  (1895),  S.  576  f.  '"Itj<to5i  Xpiaris 
almost  always  occurs  only  where  the  name  is  mentioned  in  solemn 
form.  .  .  .  The  name  6  Xpi<rr6s  also  in  the  later  parts  of  the  Acts  has 
only  appellative  significance. " 

8  St  Luke  ii.  43  does  not  belong  here ;  in  St  Luke  i.  69  David  is 
called  6  vais  deov. 

8  David  is  so  called  in  Acts  iv.  25.  The  four  passages  belong  ex- 
clusively to  the  Jerusalem  Gaesarean  source  which  I  have  defined  in  my 
Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  this,  however,  is  not  of  much  consequence  here. 
The  important  point  for  us  is  that  St  Luke  has  not  corrected  the 
expression. 

4  In  Barn.  vi.  1,  ix.  2  it  occurs  in  quotations  from  the  Old 
Testament. 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  107 

is  more  primitive  than  St  Paul  in  his  use  of  "  6  XptorTo'y," 
so  also  is  it  here :  with  him  "  6  X/oi<rro?  "  has  not  yet 
become  a  proper  name  for  our  Lord,  and  the  Messianic 
title  "  6  Trais  deov"  has  not  yet  dropped  out  of  fashion. 
The  Christology  of  St  Luke  (vide  sub  (a)  and  (d)) 
shows  that  this  is  not  a  mere  relic  of  old  days. 

(c)  '0  ixovoyeviqs  and  6  ?8ios 

It  is  well  known  that  6  fiovoyevrj?  vlo<s  gradually 
became  a  technical  term  for  our  Lord  in  the  primitive 
Church  (see,  for  example,  the  Apostles1  Creed).  The 
title  is  only  beginning  its  history  in  St  John  who  is 
the  only  writer  of  the  New  Testament  to  use  it  (vide 
St  John  i.  14,  18 ;  iii.  16,  18).  In  place  of  6  fj.ovoyevfc 
St  Paul  has  in  one  passage  (Rom.  viii.  32)  6  ?Sio$  vlo$ ; 
and  the  only  other  passage  in  the  New  Testament  where 
this  rare  designation  is  found  is  Acts  xx.  28  (6  deos 
TrepieiroiriuaTO  rrjv  €KK\t)<ria.v  avTOv  Sia  tou  aifjiaTOs  rov 
iSlov,  scl.  vlov).  This  antique  6  'ISios,  which  practically 
coincides  with  6  ayairriroq,  and  like  6  iral?  is  of 
Messianic  significance,  soon  fell  out  of  use. 

(d)  Remarks  upon  the  Christology  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles 

The  prophesied  coming  of  the  Messiah  is  not  fulfilled 
m  the  earthly  life  of  Jesus ;  He  has  yet  to  come.  Jesus 
was  indeed  declared  Messiah  by  the  Resurrection,  but  even 
this  had  not  made  Him  the  actual  Messiah  for  this  lower 
world  (though  He  rules  in  and  from  Heaven).  Only 
by  a  new  second  appearance  in  glory  upon  earth  will 
Jesus  become  the  actual  (glorified)  Messiah  for  His  people. 


108  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Nowhere  in  early  Christian  literature  do  these  articles  of 
the  belief  of  the  earliest  Christians  receive  such  clear 
attestation  as  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.  During  his 
earthly  life  Jesus  was  not  yet  the  Messiah,  but  the  avhp 
cnroSeSeiy/jievos  airb  tov  Oeov  Svud/mei  kcu  repacri  Km 
<rriixeioi$  (ii.  22),  or  He  "  whom  God  has  anointed  with 
the  Holy  Ghost  and  with  power  (the  prophet  like  unto 
Moses,  iii.  22),  who  went  about  doing  good  and  healing 
all  that  were  oppressed  of  the  devil ;  for  God  was  with 
Him11  (x.  38).  By  raising  Him  from  the  dead,  God 
had  given  Soga  (iii.  13  f.)  to  His  7rcu?  'Ij/o-ov?,  the  Holy 
and  Just  One,  the  Holy  7rcu?  whom  He  had  anointed 
(iv.  27);  He  had  made  Him  both  Lord  and  Messiah 
(iii.  36).  But  still  the  Messianic  times  have  not  yet 
arrived  upon  earth ;  there  is  only  the  certainty  that  the 
times  of  refreshing  and  of  fulfilment  of  prophecy  will 
come  through  the  sending  of  Jesus  who  is  already 
Messiah  designate  (iii.  20  f. :  oxw?  av  eXQuxriv  icaipol 
ava^u^ewg  cnro  tov  Kvplov  kcu  aTroiTTeiXjj  tov  TrpoKe- 
X€ipiarp.evov  vp.iv  Xpio~TOV  ^Irjcrovv,  ov  Set  ovpavbv  pev 
Se£a<r6ai  a\pi  xpovcov  aTroKCLTaarTaa-euos  ttclvtcov).  That 
the  Resurrection  signified  the  appointment  to  the 
Messiahship  appears  also  in  a  discourse  of  St  Paul 
(xiii.  33),  where  the  words,  "  Thou  art  my  Son,  this  day 
have  I  begotten  Thee,"  are  interpreted  of  the  Resur- 
rection.1 Not  a  trace  of  the  so-called  higher  Christology, 
as  St  Paul  proclaimed  it,  is  to  be  found  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  (or  in  the  gospel  of  St  Luke).2    The  anointed 

1  God  is  only  once  called  "the  Father"  of  Jesus  (ii.  33),  and  that 
only  as  father  of  the  risen  Jesus. 
a  Cf.  Weiss,  loc.  cU.,  S.  130  ff.  676. 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  109 

Servant  of  God,  who  by  the  Resurrection  has  attained 
to  the  throne  of  the  Universe,  has  become  what  He  is 
through  God  who  had  raised  Him  up  (xiii.  23);  but 
He  has  not  yet  ascended  the  throne  of  David — this  will 
not  be  until  His  second  advent. 

It  is  a  perfect  mystery  to  me  how  men  like  Overbeck 
and  now  again  P.  W.  Schmidt  can  set  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles  in  a  line  with  the  works  of  Justin  Martyr ! 
St  Luke's  Christology  simply  cries  out  in  protest  against 
such  procedure;  nor  is  the  case  different  with  other 
characteristics  of  this  writer.  Rather  we  must  say  that 
St  Luke,  in  spite  of  his  acquaintance  with  St  Paul,  remains 
far  behind  the  Apostle  in  his  doctrine  concerning  Christ, 
and  in  complete  independence  holds  fast  to  a  Christ- 
ology which  is  absolutely  primitive.  The  same,  however, 
can  also  be  asserted  of  his  conception  of  the  death  of 
Christ.  It  is  true  that  St  Luke  connected  this  death 
with  the  forgiveness  of  sins  (iii.  18  f.),  but  here  he  had 
in  no  sense  attained  to  the  heights  of  Pauline  doctrine. 
In  one  passage  only  (xx.  28,  St  Paul's  discourse  at 
Miletus)  does  the  death  of  the  Son  appear  as  the 
necessary  means  by  which  God  had  purchased  His 
Church ;  here,  however,  St  Luke  doubtless  gives  one  of 
those  reminiscences  of  the  actual  teaching  of  St  Paul  in 
which  this  discourse  is  so  rich.  The  situation  which 
thus  presents  itself  to  us  demands  that  we  set  the  date 
of  the  Acts  as  early  as  possible ;  for  it  is  quite  im- 
probable that  ten  to  twenty  years  after  the  death  of 
St  Paul  a  Christology  such  as  that  of  St  Luke  could  have 
been  maintained  in  the  Church  so  far  as  it  stood  under 
the  influence  of  St  Paul;   we  need  only  compare  the 


110  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Christology  of  the  Pastoral  Epistles,  of  the  First  Epistle 
of  Clement,  of  the  Apocalypse,  of  the  Fourth  Gospel, 
and  of  Ignatius. 

(e)  0/  HLpticmavoi,  ol  fxaOrjTal 

St  Luke  in  a  well-known  passage  informs  us  that  the 
name  "  ol  Xprjcmavoi "  first  arose  in  Antioch  (xi.  26).1 
By  the  way  in  which  he  expresses  himself  we  are  assured 
that  the  name  was  not  chosen  by  the  believers  in  Jesus 
themselves,  but  was  attached  to  them  from  outside 
(see  also  xxvi.  28).  Hence  St  Luke  himself  never  uses 
the  name;  he  evidently  considered  it  as  a  designation 
which  it  was  best  not  to  use,  here  agreeing  with  St 
Paul,  who  was  of  the  same  opinion.  But  from  the  first 
epistle  of  St  Peter  we  find  that  the  name  had  already 
come  into  general  use  among  believers  themselves, 
certainly  in  the  Asiatic  provinces.  We  must  therefore 
regard  it  as  improbable  that  St  Luke  could  have 
written  during  the  eighth  or  ninth  decade  of  the  first 
century  and  yet  have  been  so  averse,  as  he  shows  him- 
self, to  the  use  of  the  term  ^LprjarriavoL  However,  we 
cannot  deduce  from  this  a  conclusive  proof  that  he 
could  not  have  written  later  than  the  beginning  of  the 
seventh  decade.  But  there  is  more  weight  in  his  use  of 
ol  fiaOrrral  to   describe  Christians ;  for  this  name  has 

1  Doubts  as  to  the  trustworthiness  of  this  notice  are  now  out  of 
fashion.  Xpricrnavoi  (vide  Blass)  is  the  original  spelling,  and  in  this 
form  it  was  intended  as  a  term  of  contempt :  the  believers  in  Jesus  are 
the  followers  of  an  obscure  Xp-na-rSs.  A  parallel  instance  is  the  oldest 
Jewish  name  for  Christians,  "  Jia^wpaloi,"  of  which  the  Acts  (xxiv.  5) 
again  is  the  first  to  tell  us  ;  vide  my  Missionsgeschich. ,  l2,  S.  336  ff.,  and 
Zahn  in  his  Komment.  zu  Matth.,  S.  114  ff. 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  111 

already  disappeared  from  the  vocabulary  of  St  Paul;  the 
Apostle,  on  the  ground  of  his  Christology,  must  have 
regarded  it  as  unsuitable.  It  is  only  from  the  Acts  of 
the  Apostles x  that  we  learn  that  the  name  "  disciples  " 
— a  name  that  since  the  Resurrection  was  no  longer 
suitable — still  continued  to  be  used  as  a  designation 
among  Christians,  especially  those  of  Palestine.  That 
St  Luke  himself  used  it  as  the  customary  name  is  a 
proof  of  the  high  antiquity  of  his  work,  and  may  with- 
out doubt  be  included  among  the  arguments  for  a 
very  early  date.2 

(y)  'H  €Kic\ri(ria 

The  slight  interest  which  St  Luke  displays  in  every- 
thing "ecclesiastical"  has  been  rightly  emphasised  by 
Wellhausen  (Eml.,  S.  72).  He  is  an  individualist  who 
knows  and  values  friends,  brethren,  fellow-disciples,  but 
allows  matters  relating  to  ecclesiastical  organisation  and 
to  the  community  as  a  Church  to  fall  into  the  back- 
ground. Here,  again,  he  is  sharply  distinguished  from 
St  Paul.  It  is  true  that  eKKXyma  is  found  23  times 
in  the  Acts  (mainly  of  the  Palestinian  communities) ; 
yet  it  is  not  the  peculiar  and  regular  name  for  Christians ; 
the  name  aacXqoia  is  used  by  St  Luke  for  a  community 
either  Jewish  or  Gentile  (vii.  38 ;  xix.  32,  39,  41).  The 
passage  where  the  Church  makes  its  appearance  in  its 

1  Acts  vi.,  ix.,  xi.,  xiii.-xvi.,  xviii.,  xxi.  The  "  we  "-sections  here 
again  agree  with  the  remaining  parts  of  the  Acts. 

3  On  the  other  hand,  St  Paul,  in  his  constant  use  of  ot  dytot  as  a 
designation  for  Christians,  appears  to  be  more  primitive  than  St  Luke  ; 
oi  tiiyioi  is  very  rare  in  St  Luke :  yet  see  ix.  13,  32,  41  ;  xxvi.  10. 


112  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

fullest  significance  (xx.  28)  is  an  evident  reminiscence 
of  actual  Pauline  teaching  (vide  supra).  This  attitude 
of  St  Luke  in  regard  to  the  term  eKicXt](rla.  and  the  thing 
signified  is  the  harder  to  comprehend  the  later  one  sets 
the  date  of  the  book. 

(g)  '0  Xao?  rod  Oeov 

Here  we  make  the  astounding  discovery  that  in 
regard  to  the  use  of  6  Xao?  St  Luke  has  kept  entirely 
to  the  Jewish  usage  (the  usage  of  the  LXX.),1  i.e.  6  Xaos 
with  him  means  the  Jewish  nation ;  he  never  uses  the 
word  for  the  Christians.  '0  Xao?  is  contrasted  with 
ra  eOvr]  (xxvi.  17, 23  ;  iv.  27).  With  St  Paul  it  is  the 
same,  yet  he  does  write,  Rom.  ix.  25 :  KaXea-co  rov  ov 
Xaov  fiov  Xaov  fiov.  No  such  passage  is  to  be  found  in 
St  Luke.  We  need  not  draw  special  attention  to  the 
tremendous  gulf  which  here  separates  St  Luke  not  only 
from  Barnabas  and  Justin  but  even  from  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews  and  the  First  Epistle  of  St  Peter.  Accord- 
ing to  St  Luke  there  is  no  new  "  People  "  which  takes 
the  place  of  the  old  ;  the  Jewish  nation  still  remains  the 
People,  to  the  believing  section  of  which  the  Gentiles 
are  added.  Here,  again,  we  may  say  that  this  attitude 
is  not  intelligible  in  a  Gentile  Christian  after  70  a.d. 

(h)  'H  irapoacla,  irapoiKOi 

From  the  First  Epistle  of  St  Clement,  the  First  Epistle 
of  St  Peter  (i.  17;  ii.  II),2  and  the  literature  of  the 

1  Vide  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  pp.  50  f. ,  where  more  details  are 
given  ;  also  vide  supra,  p.  67. 
8  Eph.  ii.  19  does  not  belong  here. 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  113 

succeeding  period,  we  learn  that  TrapoiKta  and  irapoiKoi 
were  at  that  time  technical  terms  for  Christians  and  the 
Christian  community  in  their  relation  to  the  world. 
These  terms,  as  applied  to  Christians,  are  not  yet  known 
to  the  Acts  and  to  St  Paul ;  in  the  Acts  they  are  indeed 
found,  but  simply  to  describe  the  relations  of  the  ancient 
Jewish  nation  when  in  a  foreign  land  (Acts  vii.  6,  29 ; 
xiii.  17).  Accordingly,  from  this  point  of  view  also,  the 
Acts  must  be  associated  with  the  Pauline  epistles  and 
not  with  the  post-apostolic  literature. 

(i)  Sunday  and  the  Jewish  Feasts 

We  know  that  already  at  the  time  of  St  Paul 
Sunday  was  a  special  day  for  Christians.  By  the  end 
of  the  first  century  it  had  received  the  name  "the 
Lord's  Day,11  as  we  see  from  Rev.  i.  10  (cf.  also  the 
Didache).  St  Paul,  however,  still  calls  it  " /xia 
aa8/3drov  "  (1  Cor.  xvi.  %).  This  name,  to  which,  as  it 
were,  the  Jewish  egg-shell  still  adheres,  could  not  have 
lasted  long ;  for  when  Gentile  Christians  became  more 
numerous  and  more  independent,  it  must  have  died 
out  as  unintelligible,  or  at  least  as  unworthy.  How- 
ever, we  still  find  it  in  Acts  xx.  7  :  iv  777  fxia  ru>v 
craft  Sarcov  (cf.  St  Luke  xxiv.  1).  Again  we  find  the 
Acts  associated  with  St  Paul  in  contrast  to  the 
later  literature. 

We  must  further  draw  attention  to  the  fact  that  St 
Lukethe  GentileChristian,  writing  for  Gentile  Christians, 
in  fixing  dates  makes  use  of  the  Jewish  calendar,  that 
he  refers  to  Jewish  religious  customs,  and  that  he  pre- 
supposes that  his  readers  are  conversant  with  all  these 


114  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

things.1  This  strange  fact  admits  of  no  other  plain 
and  obvious  explanation  than  that  St  Luke  wrote  at  a 
time  when  the  great  majority  of  Gentile  Christians  con- 
sisted of  those  who  had  previously  been  in  more  or 
less  close  touch  with  the  Synagogue.  This  time  must 
naturally  have  been  the  time  of  the  beginning  of  the 
mission  ;  at  a  later  period  St  Luke's  treatment  of  such 
matters  would  have  been  no  longer  explicable.  Here 
again  we  are  directed  to  a  time  contemporaneous  with 
St  Paul  and  not  to  the  post-Pauline  epoch. 

5.  The  Objections  to  an  Early  Date  for  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  (Conclusion) 

In  my  Chronologie  der  altchrist.  Lit.,  1  (1897),  S.  246  ff., 
718,  and  in  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  pp.  290  ff.,  I  have 
already  reduced  the  arguments  against  an  early  date  for 
the  Acts — assuming  St  Luke's  authorship — to  two, 
namely,  (1)  that  the  gospel  of  St  Luke  seems  to  have 
been  composed  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
(2)  that  it  is  difficult  to  explain  the  legends  concerning 
the  appearances  of  the  Risen  Christ  and  concerning  the 
Ascension  on  the  assumption  that  they  arose  before 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.2    None  of  the  other  argu- 

1  I  have  collected  and  discussed  the  material  upon  which  these 
statements  are  based  in  my  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  pp.  19  ff.  Numerous 
passages  come  under  consideration  (i.  12  ;  ii.  1  ;  xii.  3,  4  ;  xx.  6,  7,  16  ; 
xxi.  23,  27  ;  xxvii.  9).    The  three  last  passages  are  especially  important 

2  In  spite  of  the  support  of  Keim,  Overbeck,  Renan,  Holtzmann, 
Hausrath,  Krenkel,  Clemen,  Schmiedel,  Wendt,  and  others,  I  have 
not  noticed  the  argument  that  the  author  of  the  Acts  had  read 
Josephus ;  for  this  point  haa  been  settled  thirty-four  years  ago  by 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  115 

ments  have  any  weight.  The  date  of  the  gospel  will 
be  investigated  afresh  in  the  next  section ;  and  the 
question  concerning  the  nature  and  speed  of  legendary 
evolution,  in  so  far  as  it  admits  of  an  answer,  will  be 
dealt  with  in  the  concluding  chapter.  Let  us,  however, 
at  once  say  that  a  question  like  this,  though  it  may 
well  aggravate  our  difficulties  and  render  us  cautious  in 
coming  to  a  definite  decision  in  chronological  problems, 

Schiirer  (Theol.  Lit.  Zig.,  1876,  No.  15  ;  alsoc/.  Wellhausen  ;  Plummer, 
St  Luke,  pp.  xix.  s.  ;  Jiilicher,  Mnl.,6  S.  397  ;  Zahn,  Mnl.,  ii.,  S.  401 
f.,  434  ff.  ;  Nosgen,  Stud.  u.  Krit.,  1879,  S.  521  ff.).  Schiirer  sums  up  as 
follows  :  Either  St  Luke  had  not  read  Josephus,  or,  if  he  had  read  him, 
he  had  forgotten  what  he  had  read.  Schiirer  here  exactly  hits  the 
mark.  The  hypothesis  that  the  Acts  depends  upon  J  osephus  is  bound  up 
with  the  assumption  of  the  ordinary  critic  that  the  author  derived 
none  of  his  information  from  his  own  knowledge  or  from  oral 
tradition,  but  had  gleaned  it  all  from  literary  sources,  mainly  those 
which  we  still  possess.  If  this  assumption  falls  to  the  ground,  and  if 
one  allows  him  even  only  a  small  measure  of  historical  knowledge 
acquired  with  more  or  less  trouble,  then  this  question  whether  he  had 
read  Josephus  does  not  come  up  for  consideration  ;  for  the  number  of 
their  points  of  contact  in  Mstoricis  is  very  small,  while  the  number  of 
divergencies  is  great,  and  in  some  statements  St  Luke  is  the  more 
trustworthy.  Krenkel  has  simply  lost  himself  in  baseless  theory  in 
his  attempt  to  make  the  author  of  the  Acts  in  style  and  vocabulary  a 
plagiarist  of  Josephus.  The  real  relationship  between  the  two 
writers  can  be  learned  even  from  Wendt,  who  counts  only  one  co- 
incidence as  at  all  certain,  and  freely  acknowledges  that  it  is  a 
questionable  practice  to  base  an  hypothesis  of  dependence  upon  a 
single  instance  (Acts  v.  36  f. — which  has  been  fully  elucidated  by 
Schiirer),  though  he  does  believe  in  the  dependence  of  St  Luke :  "I 
see  no  definite  reason  why  the  author  of  the  Acts  should  not  have  been 
acquainted  with  Josephus'  Antiquities."  As  if  it  were  necessary  to 
produce  such  a  reason  !  As  if  the  burden  of  proof  did  not  rest  upon 
those  who  assert  dependence  !  It  is  now  pretty  generally  recognised 
that  no  chronological  argument  can  be  based  upon  Acts  viii.  25  (oStij 
iariv  fyripos). 


116  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

can  never  be  of  decisive  weight  either  one  way  or  the 
other,  since  we  can  establish  no  general  rules  governing 
the  speed  and  the  character  of  legendary  accretion. 
This  means  that  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  taken  by  itself 
requires  of  lis  that  we  set  its  composition  before  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  death  of  St  Paid.  We 
thus  arrive  at  a  fixed  terminus  ad  quern  for  the  dating  of 
the  synoptic  gospels,  at  least  for  St  Mark  and  St  Luke ; 
herein  lies  the  chief  significance  of  our  calculation  of  the 
date  of  the  Acts — provided  always  that  the  gospels 
themselves  do  not  afford  evidence  so  strongly  opposed 
to  our  calculation  that  in  spite  of  all  it  must  be 
acknowledged  to  be  mistaken. 

6.  The  Date  of  the  Gospel  of  St  Luke 

If  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  had  been  the  only  work 
of  its  author  that  we  possessed — if,  that  is,  the  gospel 
had  not  also  come  down  to  us — the  verdict  concerning 
his  acquaintance  with  the  Gospel  history  would  pro- 
bably have  run  somewhat  as  follows : — This  man  knew 
practically  nothing  more  of  the  Gospel  history  than 
what  he  learned  through  Christological  dogma ;  at  all 
events,  he  stood  quite  outside  the  stream  of  synoptic 
tradition,  for  the  only  saying  of  our  Lord  that  he  records 
is  not  to  be  found  in  the  synoptic  gospels;  the  few 
instances  in  which  he  coincides  with  this  tradition  need 
not  by  any  means  have  been  derived  from  this  tradition  ; 
on  the  whole,  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  a  proof  that 
the  memory  of  Jesus,  the  actual  person,  apart  from  the 
Christological  doctrines  that  had  gathered  round  Him, 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  117 

was  at  that  time  almost  entirely  extinct ;  indeed,  the 
book  suggests  the  question :  Did  Jesus  really  live  at 
all  ?  for,  if  in  an  historical  account  of  the  thirty  years 
immediately  succeeding  His  death  so  little  is  said  of 
Him  beyond  what  belongs  to  the  sphere  of  dogma,  it 
is  no  longer  easy  to  imagine  that  Jesus  really  existed ; 
adherents,  who  call  themselves  "disciples"  of  a  Man 
whose  words  and  teaching  they  scarcely  ever  summon 
to  their  recollection,  stand  under  the  suspicion  that 
He  whom  they  follow  is  no  leader  of  flesh  and  blood, 
but  simply  a  phantom  creation  of  dogma.  So  people 
would  have  probably  judged ;  for  they  now  say  much 
the  same  in  the  case  of  St  Paul.  Fortunately,  the 
author  of  the  Acts  has  also  written  a  "gospel,"  and 
accordingly  the  whole  of  this  train  of  argument  is 
upset.  Unfortunately,  we  possess  no  "gospel"  from 
the  hand  of  St  Paul ;  but  no  one  can  be  sure  that,  if  he 
had  written  one,  it  would  have  been  poorer  in  subject 
matter  than  that  of  St  Luke  ! 

The  critics  of  our  days  (even  B.  Weiss)  are  practically 
unanimous  in  assigning  this  first  work  of  St  Luke,  his 
gospel,  to  the  time  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
The  majority  of  them  do  not  even  think  that  they  are 
in  these  days  called  upon  to  take  any  special  trouble  to 
prove  this  point.  Zahn  forms  an  exception,  seeing 
that  in  his  Einleitung,  S.  439  ff.,  377,  he  tries  to 
demonstrate  at  length  the  necessity  of  such  a  date. 
There  is,  of  course,  not  much  force  in  the  general  con- 
sideration that,  before  the  arrival  of  the  judgment 
which  our  Lord  prophesied  should  come  upon  Jerusalem, 
it  would  not  have  been  easy  for  a  Christian  "  to  conceive 


118  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

of  the  history  of  Christianity  as  an  evolution  which 
had  now  reached  a  certain  consummation,1'  for  St  Luke 
knew  nothing  of  a  "consummation  of  an  evolution" 
which  had  now  been  reached,  neither  does  he  anywhere 
suggest  anything  of  the  kind.  For  him  there  is  no 
other  consummation  than  the  return  of  our  Lord  to 
judge  the  world;  and  the  present  time  is  "the  times 
of  the  Gentiles.""  The  fact  that  St  Paul  has  been 
brought  to  Rome  does  not  complete  a  chapter  in 
actual  history,  but  only  in  the  carrying  out  of  the 
literary  plan  which  St  Luke  had  sketched  out  for  him- 
self. In  this  the  fate  of  Jerusalem  comes  neither 
directly  nor  indirectly  into  consideration. 

Zahn  maintains  two  theses :  (1)  He  allows  that  the 
passages  peculiar  to  St  Luke  xix.  11-27  [verse  27  is 
alone  to  the  point];  xix.  41-44;  xx.  18;  and  xxiii. 
27-31  were  conceived  and  composed  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem ;  that  they  are  indeed  "  drawn  from 
the  treasure-chamber  of  tradition,11  and  are  thus  genuine ; 
but  he  asserts  that  the  fact  that  St  Luke  produces 
them  necessarily  shows  that  Jerusalem  had  in  the  mean- 
time been  destroyed. 

(2)  He  declares  that  the  passage  xxi.  20-24,  which 
has  been  substituted  for  the  passage  concerning  the 
Abomination  of  Desolation  in  St  Matthew  and  St  Mark, 
must  have  been  conceived  after  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem,  either  by  St  Luke  himself  or  more  probably 
by  the  Christian  community. 

Zahn  has  not  mentioned  other  arguments,  nor  do  I 
find  that  any  other  critic  has  brought  forward  any 
others  worthy  of  notice.     Other  arguments  of  all  kinds 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  119 

are  indeed  advanced,  but  they  are  all  based  either  upon 
the  fact  that  the  words  of  our  Lord  have  suffered 
subsequent  modification  in  accordance  with  the  actual 
experiences  of  His  Church  (though  it  is  impossible  to 
discover  the  date  of  these  alterations),  or  upon  special 
interpretations  of  words  of  our  Lord  and  incidents 
recorded  by  St  Luke — interpretations  which  are  entirely 
beyond  our  control. 

As  for  the  two  arguments  advanced  by  Zahn,  he  him- 
self has  deprived  the  first  of  real  force ;  for  if  these 
sayings  form  good  and  genuine  tradition,  it  naturally 
cannot  ever  be  proved  that  they  could  not  have  become 
public  until  after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  But 
even  if  they  are  not  altogether  genuine  tradition — as 
seems  to  me  very  probable — I  do  not  see  why  they 
necessarily  presuppose  the  accomplishment  of  the  judg- 
ment upon  Jerusalem.  They  assume  absolutely  nothing 
more  than  that  a  fearful  judgment  will  certainly  come, 
neither  do  they  contain  details  of  a  kind  that  in  any  way 
awakens  suspicion.  Wellhausen  (on  xix.  41  f.),  indeed, 
says  that  the  deep  sorrow  of  our  Lord  over  the  fall  of 
the  city  presupposes  that  the  city  had  already  fallen ; 
but  we  must  remember  that  St  Luke  is  inclined  to  be 
pathetic,  and  is  fond  of  introducing  strong  expressions 
of  feeling,  so  that  with  a  writer  of  this  kind  one  may 
not  conclude  that  for  him  the  scene  has  really  changed 
from  before  to  after  the  catastrophe. 

Accordingly  there  remains  only  the  argument  from 
xxi.  20-24.1     Zahn  here  argues  as   follows :     In   this 

1  "  But  when  ye  see  Jerusalem  compassed  with  armies,  then  know 
that  her  desolation  is  at  hand  ;  then  let  them  that  are  in  Judsea  flee  to 


120  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

passage  St  Luke  has  deleted  the  polluting  "  Abomina- 
tion of  Desolation  "  (vide  St  Mark  and  St  Matthew),  and 
has  replaced  it  by  a  prophecy  of  quite  different  content. 
This  is  only  partly  explicable  from  the  consideration 
that  Theophilus  was  not  conversant  with  the  ideas 
necessary  for  the  understanding  of  this  prophecy;  for 
St  Luke  has  not  simply  omitted  it,  but  has  replaced  it 
by  something  quite  different.  It  is  indeed  possible  that 
the  words  that  have  been  substituted  were  also  spoken 
by  our  Lord ;  but  if  it  is  true  that  our  Lord  in  this 
situation  could  have  spoken  only  either  as  St  Matthew 
or  only  as  St  Luke  records,  while  St  Luke  gives  a  more 
circumstantial  and  complete  form  to  the  prophecy  con- 
cerning the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  it  follows  that 
w  there  cannot  be  much  doubt  that  the  reason  of  this 
was  that  the  actual  destruction  of  Jerusalem  had 
intervened.11 

No  one  will  find  this  line  of  argument  convincing, 
seeing  that  here  again  (vide  supra)  Zahn  admits  that 
St  Luke  allows  our  Lord  to  say  nothing  that  He  could 
not  have  said.     The  most  that  can  be  alleged  is  that  it 

the  mountains  ;  and  let  them  that  are  in  the  midst  of  her  depart  out, 
and  let  not  them  that  are  in  the  country  enter  therein.  For  these  are 
days  of  vengeance,  that  all  things  which  are  written  may  be  fulfilled. 
Woe  unto  them  that  are  with  child,  and  to  them  that  give  suck  in 
those  days  !  for  there  shall  be  great  distress  upon  the  land  and  wrath 
unto  this  people.  And  they  shall  fall  by  the  edge  of  the  sword,  and 
shall  be  led  captive  into  all  the  nations  ;  and  Jerusalem  shall  be  trodden 
down  of  the  Gentiles  until  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  be  fulfilled."  It 
is  often  treated  as  a  matter  of  chronological  importance  that  St  Luke 
has  omitted  the  words  6  avayivwcncwv  votiru  (St  Mark  xiii.  14  ;  St  Matt, 
xxiv.  15).  But  this  omission  was  necessary,  seeing  that  he  had  omitted 
' '  the  Abomination  of  Desolation. " 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  121 

is  possible  to  suspect  that  St  Luke,  because  he  refers  to 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  more  frequently  and  with 
greater  emphasis  than  the  other  evangelists,  may  there- 
fore have  written  after  the  catastrophe. 

Wellhausen  thinks  that  here  a  vatinicium  post  eventum 
can  be  conclusively  proved.  "  In  St  Luke  we  hear  nothing 
of  the  mysterious  Abomination  of  Desolation,  spoken 
of  in  Daniel,  as  the  beginning  of  the  great  revolution 
in  conjunction  with  the  '  Son  of  Man 1  as  its  conclusion  " 
[Yet  in  verse  27  the  coming  of  the  Son  of  Man  is 
announced  in  this  connection  !].  "  He  substitutes  a  plain 
and  simple  prophecy  of  the  desolation  of  Jerusalem" 
[but  the  desolation  of  Jerusalem  appears  also  in  Rev.  xi., 
a  prophecy  which  certainly  falls  before  the  year 
70  a.d.].  "  The  tribulation  of  the  Jews  does  not  end 
with  their  deliverance  by  the  Son  of  Man,  but  with  their 
destruction11  ["Destruction11  is  not  the  right  term, 
neither  is  it  the  final  end ;  the  Jews  are  to  be  partly 
led  into  slavery ;  but  when  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  are 
fulfilled,  it  will  again  be  otherwise ;  vide  Acts  iii.  20  f.] 
"  It  is  not  till  after  their  destruction  that  the  Son  of 
Man  intervenes  against  the  Gentiles  when  the  time  of 
these  also  is  fulfilled.  Accordingly,  the  Parousia  does 
not  coincide  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem ;  this 
catastrophe  does  not  form  the  end,  nor  can  it  do  so 
any  longer,  because  it  already  belongs  to  the  past11 
[Wellhausen  reckons  with  St  Luke  more  strictly,  and 
separates  periods  of  time  more  distinctly  than  such  a 
prophecy  allows :  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  are  already 
in  progress  ;  in  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  they  come 
to  their  climax  and  approach  their  close ;  St  Luke  does 


122  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

not  say  how  long  the  time  of  the  triumph  of  the  world- 
power  and  the  slavery  of  the  Jews  lasts;  but,  as  the 
parallel  passages  in  the  other  gospels  teach  us,  he  could 
only  have  thought  of  weeks  or  months;  then  comes 
the  Son  of  Man,  verse  27  ;  hence  the  Parousia  still  coin- 
cides with  the  catastrophe  of  Jerusalem  ;  for  the  short 
intervening  time  serves  only  for  the  working  out  of 
this  catastrophe,  which  would  be  no  catastrophe  at 
all  if  it  had  not  a  short  time  in  which  to  manifest  its 
terrors ;  there  is  accordingly  nothing  that  suggests  that 
it  must  already  belong  to  the  past].  "Hence  the 
catastrophe  is  also  described  by  St  Luke  in  clearer  and 
more  direct  and  appropriate  language  than  by  St  Mark 
and  St  Matthew.  He  has  brought  the  prophecy  '  up  to 
date,1  now  that  the  original  term  of  its  fulfilment  had 
run  out  and  it  had  been  shown  that  the  destruction  of 
the  holy  city  had  brought  neither  the  End  nor  the 
coming  of  Messiah.  ...  In  verse  24  actual  history 
peeps  out  most  clearly ;  here  things  are  noticed  which 
happen  as  further  results  of  the  destruction  of  the  city. 
From  the  concluding  sentence,  which  depends  upon 
Ezek.  xxx.  3,  it  follows  that  the  rest  of  the  passage 
xxi.  25  ff.  is  concerned  with  the  Gentiles  "  [It  is  true 
that  St  Luke  does  introduce  a  few  details  that  are  not 
found  in  St  Matthew  and  St  Mark,  but  they  are  quite 
general  and  insignificant  and  correspond  to  well-known 
utterances  of  the  prophets :  there  was  thus  no  need  of 
prophetic  nor  of  any  other  kind  of  wisdom  to  make 
our  Lord  foretell  such  things ;  nor  can  it  be  said  that  in 
distinction  from  St  Matthew  and  St  Mark  the  prophecy 
is  brought  "up  to  date'1;  even  in   verse  24  nothing 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  123 

appears  which  could  not  have  been  written  in  any 
Jewish  eschatological  work  of  the  years  30-50  a.d.]. 
"  The  section  xxi.  25-28  is  separated  by  a  considerable 
period  of  time  from  xxi.  20-24,  and  no  longer  refers  to 
the  past,  but  to  the  actual  future  "  [There  is  nothing 
that  points  to  such  a  break  here,  rather  the  discourse 
proceeds  quite  simply  and  smoothly:  koi  'lepova-aXrjfji 
carat  irarovinivi)  viro  eOvoov,  a-xpt  ov  TrXrjpooduxrtv  Kcupol 
fflvoov,  kcu  ecrovTai  a-rj/meia  ev  rjX'np  koi  <reAj/v#  k.t.\.,  the 
times  of  the  Gentiles  are  fulfilled  in  the  coming  of  the 
Judgment  and  in  the  short  period  of  terror  wherein  the 
Judgment  is  consummated  upon  Jerusalem]. 

I  have  given  in  parenthesis  my  refutation  of  Well- 
hausen's  exegesis  of  xxi.  20-24.  There  is  nothing  in 
these  verses  that  compels  us  to  assume,  or  even  suggests 
to  us,  that  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  had  already 
happened.  Everything  is  much  better  explained  on  the 
hypothesis  that  St  Luke  had  omitted  the  "  Abomination 
of  Desolation"  because  he  naturally  thought  that  it 
would  not  be  intelligible  to  his  readers,  and  that  he  had 
replaced  it  by  a  prophecy  of  the  destruction  of  the  city. 
The  fact  that  in  the  substituted  passage  he  did  not  make 
use  of  more  significant  details  than  those  which  also 
appear  in  St  Matthew  and  St  Mark  proves  that  he  had 
not  more  accurate  knowledge  than  they  ;  and  he  had  not 
more  accurate  knowledge  than  they,  because  he  could  not 
have  it — the  event  prophesied  had  not  yet  come  to 
pass.  It  is  no  sign  of  new  prophetic  wisdom  to  foretell 
that  the  city  would  be  encompassed  with  soldiers,  and 
that  this  would  be  the  sign  of  the  pre-ordained  desola- 
tion, any  more  than  to  give  the  information  that  a  war 


124  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

will  bring  distress  upon  the  land,  and  that  in  a  war 
many  will  fall  by  the  sword  and  that  the  rest  will  be 
carried  away  into  captivity  ! x  Moreover,  verse  28  sets 
its  seal  upon  the  fact  that  Jerusalem  is  not  yet  destroyed, 
for  we  read :  "  When  these  things  begin  to  come  to 
pass,  then  look  up  and  lift  up  your  heads,  for  your 
redemption  draweth  nigh."  Here  everything  is  in  the 
future,  everything  is  accomplished  in  a  brief  space  of 
time. 

Hence  it  is  proved  that  it  is  altogether  wrong  to  say 
that  the  eschatological  passages  force  us  to  the  con- 
clusion that  the  third  gospel  was  written  after  the  year 
70  a.d.2  And  since  there  are  no  other  reasons  for  a 
later  date,  it  follows  that  the  strong  arguments,  which 
favour  the  composition  of  the  Acts  before  70  a.d.,  now 
also  apply  in  their  full  force  to  the  gospel  of  St  Luke, 
and  it  seems  now  to  be  established  beyond  question  that 
both  books  of  this  great  historical  work  were  written  while 
St  Paul  was  still  alive.3 

1  The  form  of  the  prophecy,  "They  will  be  led  away  into  captivity 
among  all  the  nations"  shows  quite  clearly  that  the  conception  is 
purely  ideal. 

8  With  verse  28  agrees  the  evidence  of  verse  32  :  "  Verily  I  say  unto 
you,  this  generation  will  not  pass  away  until  all  be  fulfilled."  Well- 
hausen  declares  that  St  Luke  adopted  this  from  St  Mark,  though  it  no 
longer  suited  the  time  at  which  he  wrote  !  It  is  true  that  the  verse  is 
borrowed  from  St  Mark,  but  it  is  difficult  to  imagine  how  St  Luke  could 
have  borrowed  it  if  the  situation  had  been  already  entirely  changed  by 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  St  Luke  xxi.  7-36  forms  a  homogeneous 
whole,  giving  a  succession  of  events  which  are  about  to  quickly  follow 
one  another.  Everything  is  still  in  the  future,  so  also  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  All  will  come  to  pass  before  the  present  generation  has 
passed  away ;  the  disciples  will  yet  live  to  see  the  Parousia. 

*  Among  the  scholars  who  are  of  this  opinion  I  specially  mention  von 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  125 

But  is  there  really  no  other  reason  for  a  later 
date  ? 

There  is  no  doubt  that  St  Mark's  gospel  belongs  to 
the  sources  of  the  gospel  of  St  Luke.  Can  the  former 
gospel  be  ascribed  to  so  early  a  date?  If  two  years 
after  the  arrival  of  St  Paul  in  Rome  the  Acts  was 
already  written,  then  the  date  of  the  Lukan  gospel 
must  be  earlier,  and  that  of  the  gospel  of  St  Mark 
earlier  still.  But  do  not  difficulties  stand  in  the  way 
of  such  an  hypothesis  ? 1 

Hofmann,  Thiersch,  Wieseler,  Resch,  and  Blass.  Plummer  also  (St 
Luke,  p.  xxxii)  is  disposed  to  accept  the  early  date,  were  it  not  for  the 
prologue  ;  he  cannot  think  that  while  St  Paul  was  still  living  many 
persons  can  have  already  written  works  concerning  the  Gospel  history. 
But  with  our  complete  ignorance  of  the  circumstances  it  is  quite  inad- 
missible for  us  any  longer  so  to  tie  ourselves  down  to  one  decade  as  to 
say  that  a  decade  later  there  were  "many"  that  could  have  written, 
while  a  decade  earlier  there  could  not  have  been  many. 

1  No  difficulty  is  presented  by  the  source  Q  (i.e.  the  source  common 
to  St  Matthew  and  St  Luke) ;  vide  my  Sayings  of  Jesus,  pp.  246  ff.  ;  it 
is  earlier  than  St  Mark,  and  nothing  prevents  its  being  assigned  to  the 
year  50  A.D.,  or  still  earlier.  Ramsay's  hypothesis,  according  to  which 
Q  was  already  written  before  the  Crucifixion  because  it  breaks  off  before 
that  event,  will  naturally  find  a  poor  reception,  seeing  that  no  other 
argument  can  be  adduced  in  its  favour.  The  high  antiquity  of  the 
source  Q  is  declared  above  all  by  a  series  of  negative  indications :  the 
Parousia  is  spoken  of  only  at  the  close,  and  in  a  very  discreet  way ; 
the  source  has,  if  we  may  so  say,  only  an  "indirect"  Ohristology 
apart  from  the  pretty  frequent  occurrence  of  the  title  "Son  of  Man" 
as  applied  by  our  Lord  to  Himself.  The  fact  that  in  this  source  our 
Lord  tells  His  disciples  that  they  will  suffer  persecution  does  not 
compel  us  to  assume  that  late  experiences  of  the  disciples  are  here 
reflected,  for  the  announcement  is  made  in  the  barest  and  simplest 
terms ;  neither  is  there  any  reason  why  the  experience  spoken  of  in 
St  Matt.  x.  34  ff.  (St  Luke  xii.  51,  53)  should  be  a  case  of  hysteron- 
proteron.  In  another  instance  we  should  be  obliged  to  assume 
hysteron-proteron,  if  it  were  impossible,  as  Wellhausen  says,  to  believe 


126  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 


7.  The  Date  of  St  Mark's  Gospel 

The  gospel  itself  gives  absolutely  no  direct  indication 
as  to  its  date ;  one  thing  only  is  clear  from  chap.  xiii.  —as 
Wellhausen  also  recognises — that  it  was  written  before 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem ;  how  many  years  before 
there  is  absolutely  no  internal  evidence  to  show.  Inter- 
nal indications,  therefore,  place  no  impediment  in  the  way 
of  assigning  St  Mark  at  the  latest  to  the  sixth  decade  of 
the  first  century,  as  is  required  by  the  date  we  have  as- 
signed to  St  Luke.1 

But  what  says  tradition?  The  authorities  which 
come  into  consideration  are  the  following : — 

1.  John  the  Presbyter  in  the  passage  quoted  by 
Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  iii.  39,  from  Papias.  From  this 
passage  we  cannot  be  sure  whether  it  was  during  the 
lifetime  of  St  Peter  or  not  that  St  Mark  wrote  down 

that  our  Lord  during  His  lifetime,  on  one  occasion,  sent  out  His  dis- 
ciples upon  a  mission  ;  but  we  have  no  sure  evidence  upon  which  we 
can  dispute  this  tradition,  and  the  antiquity  of  the  title  "Apostles," 
as  assigned  to  the  Twelve  collectively,  is  here  of  great  significance 
(nothing  is  known  of  a  missionary  activity  of  all  the  twelve  disciples 
after  the  Resurrection).  Neither  can  we  allow  that  another  hysteron- 
proteron  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  Lord's  Prayer,  even  in  the  original 
form  presented  in  Q,  appears  as  a  community  prayer.  Our  Lord  may 
very  well  have  taught  His  disciples  to  pray,  and  there  is  nothing  in 
Q's  version  of  the  prayer  that  is  unsuitable  in  a  prayer  used  by  the 
disciples.  The  saying  concerning  ' '  taking  up  the  Cross  "  alone  must 
probably  be  regarded  as  a  hysteron-proteron.  The  great  discourse 
concerning  St  John  the  Baptist  (St  Matt.  xi.  2  ff.  ;  St  Luke  vii.  18  ff.) 
and  St  Matt.  xi.  25  ff.  (St  Luke  x.  21  f. )  are,  in  my  opinion,  authentic 
tradition. 

1  This  also  is  Wellhausen's  opinion ;  vide  his  Einleitung  in  die 
drti  ersten  Evangelien,  S.  87. 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  127 

"all  that  he  remembered";  the  place  also  where  St 
Mark  wrote  remains  obscure  (kcu  rovO'  6  irpea-fivrepos 
eXeyev'  Map/co?  fiev  kp/xrivevTriq  Hirpov  yevo/uevos,  o<ra 
e/JLvrjixovevcrev,  a/c/3t/3w?  eypa^rev,  ov  /a&vtol  rd£ei  to.  vtto 
tou  icvplov  37  XexOeura  rj  irpax^evra).  If  St  Peter  was 
still  alive  when  St  Mark  wrote,  we  must  assume  that 
St  Mark  did  not  live  with  him ;  for  otherwise  we 
cannot  understand  why  the  Apostle  did  not  help 
his  disciple  to  produce  a  more  complete  and  satis- 
factory work. 

2.  Papias  himself,  if  the  words  which  follow  those 
quoted  above 1  belong  to  him  and  not  to  the  Presbyter ; 
these  words  also  are  silent  as  to  the  time  and  place  of 
writing,  but  like  the  testimony  of  the  Presbyter  they 
lead  to  the  dilemma :  either  St  Peter  was  already  dead 
or  St  Mark  did  not  live  in  his  company.2 

3.  Justin  ;  he  calls  the  Markan  gospel  cnrofJLvrjtiovevfxaTa 
rod  Herpov  (Dial.,  106),  but  this  is  all  we  learn. 

4.  The  tradition  which  Clement  of  Alexandria  tells  its 
had  come  down  to  him ;  it  is  presented  to  us  in  twofold 
form:  (a)  In  the  "  Adumbr.  in  1  Pet.  v.  13"  (Stahelin, 
III.,  p.  206)  we  read :  "  Marcus,  Petri  sectator,  praedi- 
cante  Petro  evangelium  palam  Romae  coram  quibusdam 

1  Oi/T«  yhp  ijicovtre  rod  tcvpiov  oOre  irapi\Ko\ov9ri<Ttv  avrip,  Sffrtpop 
Sh  us  <E<pT\v  Tlerpep,  ts  irphs  rks  xPe'Las  tw9ttvro  rks  $i$a<TKa\las  &AA'  obx 
&<firep  ffivrafyv  rup  tcvpiaicap  rroioifiepos  Xoyiow '  &o~re  ovSep  ^jxaprtP 
MdpKos  outoos  epta  ypotyas  ws  airefipT]fji.6pevaep'  epbs  ycip  iiroti\ffaro 
wp6voMv,  rov  firjSey  &p  tficovo~e  irapaXiweii'  ^  tyetiffaffOai  ri  4v  avrois. 

»  Zahn  {Einl.  i.  d.  N.T.  ii.4  S.  20,  219  f.)  attempts  to  prove  from 
Eusebius,  Hist.  Eccl.,  ii.  15,  that  Papias  is  a  witness  that  the  gospel  of 
St  Mark  was  written  in  Rome.  I  have  answered  him  in  the  Zeitschrift 
f.  NTlicht  Wissmschaft,  1902,  S.  159  ff.  ;  see  also  Corssen  in  the  same 
review,  S.  244  ff. 


128  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Caesareanis  equitibus x  et  multa  Christi  testimonia  pro- 
ferente,  petitus  ab  eis,  ut  possent  quae  dicebantur 
memoriae  commendare,  scripsit  ex  his,  quae  a  Petro  dicta 
sunt,  evangelium  quod  secundum  Marcum  vocitatur." 
(b)  From  the  '*  Hypotyposeis  "  (Book  vii.)  in  Eusebius, 
Hist.  Eccl.,  vi.  14 :  to  Kara.  M.dpKou  raurrjv  ea-xn^vai 
tijv  oiKovo/iiav'2  rov  ILerpov  Stj/moaia  ev  P&>/*#  Kt]pv£avros 
top  \6yov  Kai  TTvev/xaTi  to  evayyiXiov  e^eiirovro^  tovs 
irapovra?,  ttoXXovs  ovrac,  irapaKaXecrai  rov  M.apicov  <W 
av  aKoXovQrjcravTa  avrw  iroppwQev  [for  a  long  time]  /ecu 
p.€/jLvt]fiivov  tcov  XexOevToov,  avaypcflfsai  to.  elprjjxeva' 
Troitfcravra  Se,  to  evayyiXiov  p-eraSovvai  TOtp  Seofiivois 
avrov'*    oirep  eiriyvovra  rov  ILerpov  irpoTpeirTiKoo^  fir/re 

1  This  particular  trait  ( ' '  coram  quibusdam  Caesareanis  equitibus  "), 
which  is  wanting  in  the  Greek  text,  was  perhaps  inserted  by  the  trans- 
lator from  the  Acts  of  Peter. 

8  Clement  himself  seems  to  have  rendered  this  in  indirect  oration. 

3  Schwartz  and  Stahelin  take  the  clause  from  xoi-fi&avra  to  avrou  as 
co-ordinate  with  -wapaKakiirat ;  Zahn,  however,  as  co-ordinate  with 
avaypixj/at  (accordingly  he  places  only  a  comma  before  iroiiiffavTa). 
Decision  here  is  not  easy,  and  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference.  It  is  in 
Zahn's  disfavour,  firstly,  that  the  words,  if  they  form  the  content  of 
■KapaKaXecrcu,  are  altogether  superfluous  ;  ieoi4\<ravT*,  indeed,  is  strangely 
verbose  ;  secondly,  and  principally,  that  we  expect  simply  ' '  to  them  " 
in  place  of  rols  $eo/j.fvois  avrov.  It  is  in  Zahn's  favour  that  the  suc- 
ceeding clause,  8wep  iiriyv6vra  k.t.X.,  cannot  refer  to  the  completed  fact ; 
for  one  cannot  encourage  a  man  to  do  a  thing  which  is  already  done, 
nor  can  one  undo  a  fact  which  is  completed  ;  and,  besides,  there  is  no 
Tb»  MdpKov  with  iroffiffavra,  as  we  should  expect  were  Schwartz  correct. 
And  yet  it  is  not  difficult  to  suppose  that  the  last  clause  passes  over 
the  preceding  clause  and  connects  with  the  next  but  one,  so  that  the 
clause  between  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  parenthesis.  Schwartz's 
punctuation  is  therefore  probably  correct.  The  subsequent  occurrence 
of  irpoTpficTtKws  with  icpoTpfya<r0ai  is  unusual,  but  not  impossible. 
Schwartz  would  read  -KvevfiariKus,  which  would  go  with  iiriyvdyra,  and 
receives  strong  support  from  ii.  15  (Schwartz,  Bd.  I.  S.  140,  11). 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  129 

KcoXvaai  juajre  irpoTpeyj/acrOai.  I  need  not  enter  into  an 
investigation  concerning  the  relation  between  these  two 
accounts,  which  are  really  one  and  the  same.  Here  for 
the  first  time  we  learn  that  the  gospel  of  St  Mark  was 
written  by  St  Mark  in  Rome  when  St  Peter  was  yet 
alive,  at  the  request  of  the  hearers  of  St  Peter ;  that  St 
Peter,  however,  was  quite  indifferent  in  the  matter.  This 
last  remark  can  only  have  been  occasioned  by  an  opinion 
concerning  the  book,  similar  to  that  reported  by  Papias 
and  John  the  Presbyter ;  i.e.  because  of  certain  faults 
in  the  gospel  it  was  considered  incredible  that  the 
book  could  have  received  the  approbation  of  St  Peter 
(which  would  have  made  it  his  own),  though  it  was  not 
desired  that  the  use  of  the  gospel  should  be  otherwise 
discouraged.  The  tradition  springs  from  a  time  when 
the  book  had  not  yet  attained  to  canonical  dignity. 
Even  then  it  was  thought  that  the  book  was  written  at 
Rome  during  the  lifetime  of  St  Peter.1 

5.  Irenceus;  he  writes  (iii.  1, 1 J  the  Greek  is  found 
in  Euseb.,  Hist.  Eccl.,  v.  8,  2):  fO  fxev  Srj  MarBaio? 
ev  tois  R/3paioi$  t#  iSia  avroov  SiaXeKTw  kcu  ypa<f>t]v 
ifflveyxev  evayyeXlov,  tov  TLeTpov  kcu  tov  TLavXov  ev 
Pft)yu#  evayyeXi^ofiivcov  kcu  Oe/meXtovvTcov  ty\v  eKKXtjalav, 
p.€Ta  Se  ttjv  tovtcov  e£oSov  Map/coy,  6  /xa6t]Tr]i  kcu 
epfxrjvevri]<i   Uerpov,  kcu   civtos  to.  vtto  Herpov  Kypvcr- 

1  Eusebius  also  notices  this  tradition,  which  he  derived  from  St 
Clement,  in  his  second  book  (chap,  xv.),  before  he  gives  it  in  his  sixth 
book  ;  in  the  former  passage  he  interpolates  a  later  tradition,  which  is 
introduced  by  <pacri,  and  is  irreconcilable  with  St  Clement.  It  runs : 
yvovra  5e  rb  itpax^iv  <paai  rbv  air6<TTo\ov  a.Truna'Kv-tya.VTos  avrip  rod 
wvev/jLaros  fiadrjvai  tj)  ruv  avhpuv  irpodvfiiq.  nvpuxrai  rt  rtyv  ypa<pi)v  tls 
tvrtv^iv  reus  iKK\7}<riats. 

9 


130  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

orofieva  eyypa<f>ws  rip.lv  TrapaSe'Scoicev.  ical  Aov/ca?  Se,  6 
aicoXovOos  HavXov,  to  vir  eicelvov  Krjpvcr<r6p.evov  evay- 
yeXiov  ev  /3l/3X<p  KaTeOero-  eireira  'la)avvt]s  6  pa6*rrr]$  rod 
Kvplov,  6  kcu  e7ri  to  (TTrjOog  ovtov  avaireuoav,  KOI  avros 
e£e8a>K€  to  evayyiXiov,  ev  'E0eo*w  Ttjs  Atr/a?  SiaTpifioov. 
To  Chapman  (Journal  of  Theol.  Stud.,  1905,  July, 
pp.  563  ff.)  belongs  the  credit  of  having  first  correctly 
interpreted  this  passage,  which  hitherto  had  been  a 
veritable  crux,  because  it  did  not  seem  to  fit  in  with 
the  other  chronological  traditions.  Chapman  has  shown 
that  it  is  not  the  intention  of  the  writer  to  give  us  in 
this  passage  any  chronological  information  concerning 
the  origin  of  the  gospels  apart  from  the  incidental 
remark  that  the  fourth  gospel  is  the  latest ;  such  in- 
formation, indeed,  is  not  given  in  the  case  of  the  third 
and  fourth  gospels.  The  context  of  the  passage,  which 
should  be  carefully  studied,  shows  that  Irenaeus  simply 
wished  to  prove  that  the  teaching  of  the  four  chief 
apostles  did  not  perish  with  their  death,  but  that  it 
has  come  down  to  us  in  writing.  How  did  this  happen  ? 
The  answer  given  by  Irenaeus  is  stated  in  the  passage 
quoted  above.  Taking  the  context  into  consideration 
this  passage  may  be  paraphrased  as  follows:  "Among  the 
Hebrews,  Matthew  also  published  in  their  own  tongue  a 
written  gospel  [besides  his  oral  teaching],  while1  in  Rome 
Peter  and  Paul  proclaimed  [orally,  not  in  writing]  the 
Gospel,  and  founded  the  Church.  But  [although  they 
died  without  leaving  behind  them  a  written  gospel,  their 

1  The  genitive  Absolute  is  not  temporal ;  it  does  not  imply  that  the 
gospel  of  St  Matthew  was  written  at  that  time  ;  it  Simply  contrasts  the 
ministry  of  the  two  great  Apostles  with  that  of  St  Matthew. 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  131 

teaching  has  not  perished,  for]  after  their  death  Mark 
also  [like  Matthew],  the  disciple  and  interpreter  of  Peter, 
handed  down  to  us  in  writing  the  teaching  of  Peter ;  and 
Luke,  the  follower  of  Paul,  gathered  together  in  a  book  the 
Gospel  preached  by  the  latter  apostle.  Thereupon  John, 
the  disciple  of  the  Lord,  who  also  lay  in  his  bosom,  he  also 
published  the  Gospel  while  he  was  dwelling  at  Ephesus."" 

Irenaeus  does  not  mean  to  say  that  the  gospel  of 
St  Matthew  was  composed  at  the  time  when  St  Peter 
and  St  Paul  were  preaching  in  Rome,  nor  that  the  second 
gospel  was  not  written  until  after  the  death  of  the  two 
chief  apostles.  He  had  no  further  information  con- 
cerning the  origin  of  the  two  gospels  than  what  could 
be  read  in  Papias,  upon  whose  words  his  own  are  based. 
All  that  is  additional  is  only  in  seeming,  but  Irenaeus 
did  not  even  intend  to  give  an  appearance  of  more 
detailed  knowledge. 

6.  There  are  numerous  other  later  authorities  who 
give  Rome  as  the  birthplace  of  the  gospel,1  and  still 
more  numerous  are  those  who  mention  the  names  of 
St  Peter  and  St  Mark  in  closest  combination  in  connec- 
tion with  its  composition ;  but  it  is  improbable  that 
any  one  of  these  later  authorities  represents  a  tradition 
that  is  independent  of  the  earlier  authorities. 

Of  the  traditions  which  we  have  here  collected 
together  the  following  seem  to  me  to  be  worthy  of 
notice :   (1)  that   St  Mark  in  his  gospel  made  use  of 

1  Chrysostom  makes  an  exception ;  but  his  statement  that  St  Mark 
wrote  his  gospel  at  the  request  of  his  hearers  in  Egypt  is  probably 
only  due  to  a  confusion  of  two  traditions — a  confusion  that  could  easily 
haye  been  made. 


132  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

tradition,  some  of  which,  at  all  events,  was  derived 
from  St  Peter x ;  (2)  that  St  Peter  had  nothing  whatever 
to  do  with  the  composition  of  the  gospel ;  and  (3)  that 
the  gospel  was  edited  and  published  in  Rome.  We 
view  with  great  suspicion  the  tradition  recorded  by 
St  Clement  that  St  Mark  had  begun  his  gospel  while 
St  Peter  was  alive,  but  at  first  without  his  knowledge ; 
and  that  St  Peter,  when  the  fact  came  to  his  notice, 
did  not  interfere  either  by  way  of  encouragement  or 
discouragement.  This  legend  looks  just  like  one  that 
has  been  invented  to  explain  striking  characteristics  of 
the  gospel,  such  as  its  omissions  (vide  John  the  Presbyter, 
Papias).  If  we  are  right  in  this  opinion,  then  the 
report  that  St  Mark  wrote  his  gospel  in  Rome  by 
request,  especially  as  the  Presbyter  and  Papias  say 
nothing  of  it,  cannot  pass  unchallenged ;  for  it  is 
bound  up  with  a  legend  that  has  a  distinct  purpose, 
and  it  would  almost  necessarily  grow  out  of  the  fact 
that  the  gospel  was  officially  edited  and  published  in 
Rome.  It  is  possible  that  St  Mark  brought  his  gospel 
to  Rome  when  he  came  thither  to  St  Paul  in  prison  ; 
he  may,  while  in  Rome,  have  subjected  it  to  further 
revision,  and  some  considerable  time  later  may  have 
published  it  at  the  prayer  of  the  Roman  Christians. 
Only  then  would  this  prayer  have  been  in  place.  Of 
course,  it  may  have  been  that  St  Mark  started  writing 
the  gospel  in  Rome,  but  this  is  not  necessarily  required 
by  the  tradition.2 

1  It  is  true  that  the  internal  character  of  the  gospel  justifies  this 
tradition,  if  at  all,  only  to  a  very  restricted  extent. 

2  Wellhausen  (loc.  eit.,  S.  87)  writes:  "So  far  as  we  depend  upon 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  133 

If  we  compare  this  conclusion  from  the  evidence  of 
tradition  with  the  date  presupposed  by  the  chronology 
of  the  Lukan  writings,  we  find  that  they  are  not  con- 
tradictory. Tradition  asserts  no  veto  against  the 
hypothesis  that  St  Luke,  when  he  met  St  Mark  in  the 
company  of  St  Paul  the  prisoner,  was  permitted  by  him 
to  peruse  a  written  record  of  the  Gospel  history  which 
was  essentially  identical  with  the  gospel  of  St  Mark 
given  to  the  Church  at  a  later  time ;  indeed,  the  peculiar 
relation  that  exists  between  our  second  and  third 
gospels  suggests  that  St  Luke  was  not  yet  acquainted 
with  St  Mark's  final  revision,  which,  as  we  can  quite 
well  imagine,  St  Mark  undertook  while  in  Rome. 
Seeing,  then,  that  tradition,  though  it  does  not  actually 
support,  nevertheless  does  not  contradict  the  view, 
gained  from  our  investigation  of  the  Lukan  writings, 
that  St  Mark  must  have  written  his  gospel  during  the 
sixth  decade  of  the  first  century  at  the  latest,  this  date 
may  be  regarded  as  certain.1 

8.  The  Date  of  St  Matthew's  Gospel 

In  regard  to  the  date  of  the  first  gospel  I  have 
nothing  new  to  add  to  what  I  have  already  written  in 

conjecture,  Jerusalem  alone  comes  into  consideration  as  the  place  of 
writing.  We  have  reason  to  conjecture  that  the  tradition  was  first 
written  down  in  the  place  where  it  had  its  centre  as  oral  tradition." 
(Wellhausen  also  refers  to  xv.  21,  which  others  have  brought  forward 
as  evidence  for  the  composition  in  Rome.)  Wellhausen,  it  seems  to 
me,  goes  too  far  here. 

1  The  decided  Paulinism  of  the  author  contributes  to  fix  a  terminus 
a  quo  for  the  date  of  the  gospel. 


134  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

my  Chronologie,  i.,  S.  653  f.1  The  book  must  be  placed 
in  close  proximity  with  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
In  its  present  shape,  however,  it  should  be  assigned  to 
the  years  immediately  succeeding  that  catastrophe. 
Here  St  Matt.  xxii.  7  (a  verse  wanting  in  St  Luke)  is 
of  special  weight.  And  yet  composition  before  the 
catastrophe  cannot  be  excluded  with  absolute  certainty.2 
Moreover,  the  first  gospel  more  than  any  other  of  the 
synoptics,  and  in  course  of  a  more  considerable  period 
of  time,  has  suffered  from  serious  and  repeated  inter- 
polation.8    That  the  synoptic  gospel  which  was  most 


1  On  the  other  hand,  my  views  in  that  work,  as  to  the  date  of  St 
Mark,  receive  severe  correction. 

8  In  Chronol.,  i.,  S.  654,  n.  1,  I  have  written:  "I  could  sooner 
convince  myself  that  Matthew  was  written  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem  than  believe  that  one  decade  elapsed  after  the  catastrophe 
before  the  book  was  written."  Chap,  xxvii.  8  and  many  other  passages 
are  rather  in  favour  of  composition  before  the  catastrophe. 

3  As  evidence  that  St  Matthew  was  little  known  in  Rome,  even  at 
the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  we  have  a  piece  of  external 
testimony,  though  indeed  it  is  not  quite  clear  ;  I  mean  that  remarkable 
note  of  Eusebius  (Pseudo-Eusebius),  preserved  in  the  Syriac,  concerning 
the  star  of  the  Magi  (Nestle,  Marginalien  und  Materialien,  S.  72  ;  cf. 
my  Chronologie,  ii.,  S.  126) :  "In  the  second  year  of  our  Lord,  during 
the  consulship  of  Caesar  and  Capito,  in  the  month  Kanun  II,  these  Magi 
came  from  the  East  and  paid  homage  to  our  Lord.  And  in  the  year 
430  (beginning  Oct.  1,  118),  during  the  reign  of  Hadrian,  during 
the  consulship  of  Severus  and  Fulgus  [Fulvus]  (ann.  120),  and  the 
episcopate  of  Xystus,  bishop  of  the  city  of  Rome  (about  120),  question 
as  to  this  arose  among  the  people  who  were  acquainted  with  the  Holy 
Scriptures,  and  through  the  efforts  of  great  men  in  different  places  the 
history  of  this  fact  was  sought  for  and  found,  and  was  written  in  the 
language  of  those  who  cared  for  it."  From  this  obscure  record  we 
may,  it  appears,  conclude  so  much  at  least,  that  in  the  year  120  A.D. 
St  Matthew  was  not  a  book  that  was  universally  known  and  read  in 
the  Church  of  Rome. 


DATE  OF  ACTS  AND  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS  135 

read  should  have  received  the  most  numerous  accretions, 
and  should  be  the  latest  in  date,  is  nothing  remarkable, 
but  only  natural.  Moreover,  it  remains,  in  regard  to 
form,  the  oldest  "  book  of  the  Gospel " ;  the  others  have 
obtained  the  rank  and  dignity  of  such  a  title  because 
they  have  been  set  by  the  side  of  St  Matthew's  gospel, 
which  from  the  first,  unlike  the  others,  claims  to  be  an 
ecclesiastical  book.  As  the  place  of  origin  of  the  first 
gospel,  Palestine  alone  can  come  into  consideration ;  in 
that  country  it  was  the  book  of  the  liberal  Jewish 
Christians,  who  stood  in  sharp  opposition  to  the  Scribes 
and  Pharisees.  Thus  the  book  cannot  have  arisen 
among  those  "  myriads "  of  Jewish  Christians  who 
encountered  St  Paul  on  his  last  visit,  and  were  all 
zealous  for  the  Law,  but  among  the  circles  of  Hellenistic 
Jewish  Christians  who  dwelt  in  Jerusalem  and  Palestine, 
who  traced  their  spiritual  descent  to  St  Stephen,  and 
from  whose  midst  proceeded  those  missionaries  who 
first  (in  Antioch)  preached  the  Gospel  to  the  Gentiles. 
By  such  Christians,  who  left  Palestine  after  the  great 
catastrophe,  the  gospel  of  St  Matthew  was  brought  to 
Asia  Minor  and  other  Christian  centres.1 

1  In  the  preceding  section  we  have  shown  that  Ireneeua  gives  no 
information  concerning  the  date  of  the  first  gospel  (except  for  the  fact 
that  he  places  St  Matthew  at  the  head  of  the  four  gospels). 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE    PRIMITIVE    LEGENDS    OF    CHRISTENDOM 

"The  tradition  which  St  Mark  chronicles  is  com- 
paratively rich  in  its  reference  to  Jerusalem,  while  it  is 
comparatively  poor  in  its  reference  to  Galilee.  This 
fact  cannot  be  easily  explained  if  the  tradition  was 
originally  derived  from  the  first  disciples.  Neither  are 
the  Galilean  stories  of  such  a  character  that  they  can 
be  referred  to  these  authorities.  .  .  .  Rather  it  seems 
that  the  narrative  in  St  Mark  did  not  for  the  most  part 
proceed  from  the  intimate  friends  of  Jesus.  This 
narrative  has,  for  the  most  part,  a  somewhat  rude 
popular  character,  such  as  it  would  have  gathered 
during  a  considerable  period  of  circulation  by  word  of 
mouth  among  the  common  people  before  it  attained 
to  the  unaffectedly  drastic  form  in  which  it  now  lies 
before  us 11  (Wellhausen,  Einleit.,  S.  52  f.).  These  are 
the  words  of  a  champion  who  has  delivered  us  from  the 
tyranny  of  those  feeble  and  artificial  theories  which 
attempt  to  base  either  St  Mark  as  a  whole  or  a  great 
part  of  the  gospel  upon  the  testimony  of  St  Peter. 
Wellhausen  has,  moreover,  shown  in  his  commentary  how 
seldom  in  the  stories  of  St  Mark  there  is  ground  for 

136 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  137 

concluding  that  they  are  based  upon  direct  tradition. 
The  traditions  they  record  are  second-hand  and  third- 
hand,  though  indeed  their  growth  must  have  been 
rapid ;  and  these  traditions,  so  multifarious  and  different 
in  character,  clearly  show  that  they  are  combined  from 
different  sources.  And  yet  the  sources  all  lie  in  the 
homeland  of  Palestine,  nothing  comes  from  outside, 
from  the  Christian  Diaspora ;  still  less  can  one  point  to 
the  sphere  of  "  Gentile  "  influence.  It  is  highly  remark- 
able that  the  Old  Testament  plays  scarcely  any  part  in 
this  tradition,  i.e.  it  is  not  determined  or  dominated  by 
the  motive  to  discover  in  our  Lord's  life  as  many 
instances  as  possible  of  prophecy  fulfilled  !  We,  indeed, 
are  struck  by  the  absence  of  reference  to  the  Old 
Testament ;  certain  traits  in  the  history  of  the  Passion, 
even  in  St  Mark,  possibly  form  an  exception,  but  with 
our  present  knowledge  we  are  no  longer  able  to  decide 
whether,  and  to  what  extent,  certain  passages  of  the 
Prophets  and  Psalms  have  exercised  influence  upon 
this  part  of  the  Gospel  history.  Not  everything  that 
seems  to  be  due  need  be  due  to  such  an  influence. 
Supposing  that  no  tradition  had  come  down  to  us 
concerning  the  author  of  the  second  gospel,  we  should 
have  conjectured  that  he  was  a  native  of  Jerusalem, 
who  had  not  himself  seen  Jesus,  and  indeed  was  also 
probably  too  young  to  have  received  and  preserved  any 
impression  of  Him,  who  nevertheless  may  have  come 
into  touch  with  our  Lord's  personal  disciples,  though  he 
wrote  his  gospel  neither  by  their  direction  nor  mainly 
upon  the  authority  of  their  records.  Seeing  that  he 
wished  to   tell  of  Jesus,  and   to  picture  Him  as  the 


188  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Son  of  God,  he  had  no  need  to  confine  himself  with 
scrupulous  care  to  the  "  best "  sources.  From  the  mani- 
fold traditions  that  were  current  he  chose  and  threw 
into  form  those  that  best  suited  his  purpose.  It  is 
otherwise  with  the  source  Q.  Here  one  receives  the 
impression  that  a  personal  disciple  of  our  Lord  has 
written  down  all  the  teaching  of  Jesus  which  seemed  to 
him  most  important  for  the  life  of  discipleship.  He  felt 
that  a  collection  should  be  made  of  the  "  Maxims "  of 
the  Teacher,  who  was  more  than  a  teacher  or  a  prophet, 
and  yet  remained  the  Teacher  though  he  was  and  is 
something  much  higher.  It  is  not  necessary  to  assume 
that  one  of  the  Twelve  made  the  collection,  but  there  is 
also  nothing  to  exclude  such  an  hypothesis.  Q  seems 
to  have  included  only  two  real  legends — the  Divine 
Voice  at  the  Baptism  and  the  story  of  the  Temptation 
— but  we  do  not  know  whether  these  belonged  to  the 
original  form  of  Q.  They  at  all  events  were  in  Q  as  it 
lay  before  the  authors  of  the  first  and  third  gospels. 
The  version  of  the  Voice  at  the  Baptism  in  Q  shows  that 
its  author  based  our  Lord's  Messiahship  upon  this  event 
("  Thou  art  my  Son,  this  day  have  I  begotten  Thee  "). 
The  story  of  the  Temptation  is,  as  is  shown  by  the  change 
of  scene,  an  artificial  composition  ;  its  purpose  in  Q  is  to 
show  our  Lord  approving  Himself  as  the  Son  of  God  at 
the  beginning  of  His  ministry ;  but  the  situation  implied 
in  the  second  and  third  assaults  of  the  Tempter  belongs, 
as  it  seems,  to  the  last  weeks  of  our  Lord's  life  (perhaps 
in  Jerusalem).  There  it  would  be  in  its  historical  setting. 
A  parallel  instance  to  the  hysteron-proteron  here  occur- 
ring in  Q,  is  to  be  found  in  the  fourth  gospel,  where  the 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  139 

Cleansing  of  the  Temple  is  transferred  to  the  beginning 
of  the  ministry  of  our  Lord.  Besides  this  passage  and 
the  questionable  use  of  the  title  "Son  of  Man,"  the 
source  affords  only  very  little,  indeed  nothing  of 
importance,  that  does  not  belong  to  first-hand  tradition 
and  does  not  bear  the  stamp  of  trustworthiness  (against 
Wellhausen,  whose  objections  proceed  from  his  tendency 
to  limit  too  strictly  what  was  possible  for  the  historical 
Jesus 1).  Q,  therefore,  does  not  come  within  the  scope 
of  our  inquiry  concerning  the  formation  of  legend. 

The  question  whether  the  occurrence  of  legends  and 
later  traditions  in  the  first  three  gospels  harmonises  with 
the  date  we  have  assigned  to  them  can  therefore  only 
refer  to  the  material  that  is  peculiar  to  St  Matthew  and 
to  St  Luke,  as  well  as  to  the  transformations  which  Q 
and  St  Mark  experience  in  these  gospels.  As  for  the 
changes  in  Q  and  St  Mark,  there  is  nothing  to  be  found 
in  them  that  can  disturb  our  belief  "in  the  correctness 
of  our  chronology.  Neither  the  careful  examination 
which  Wellhausen  has  made  in  his  Einleitung  into  the 
question  of  the  treatment  of  Q  in  St  Luke  and  St 
Matthew,  nor  my  own  investigations  in  The  Sayings  of 
Jesus,  have  led  to  any  results  which  compel  us  to 
assign  a  later  date  to  these  gospels.2     It  is  quite  obvious 

1  Wellhausen  disputes,  for  example  (loc.  cit.,  S.  87),  that  our  Lord 
during  His  lifetime  sent  out  His  disciples  as  Apostles  ;  but  St  Paul  has 
handed  down  to  us  a  saying,  as  a  word  of  our  Lord  (1  Cor.  ix.  14),  that 
it  is  right  that  ol  to  evayyeMov  KarayyeWovrfs  Ik  rod  evayye\iov  £rjv. 
This  saying  at  the  same  time  testifies  to  our  Lord's  use  of  the  term 
"  Gospel." 

a  Wellhausen's  criticism  does  not  always  distinguish  quite  accurately 
between  what  belongs  to  Q  and  what  belongs  to  the  evangelist,  and 


140  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

that  in  St  Matthew  numerous  hystera-protera  are  to  be 
found ;  none,  however,  that  are  of  a  blatant  character. 
It  is,  indeed,  a  fact  that  in  this  gospel  our  Lord  is 
represented  as  giving  charges  and  directions  to  a 
definitely  formed  community,  but  there  is  absolutely 
nothing  to  show  that  this  anachronism  could  not  have 
been  committed  so  early  as  twenty  years  after  Pentecost ; 
only  think  how  St  Paul  speaks  of  Christ  and  the 
Church !  In  St  Luke,  however,  in  spite  of  the  numerous 
alterations  and  corrections  of  the  text  of  St  Mark  and 
of  Q,  absolutely  nothing  is  to  be  found  that  compels  us 
to  assume  a  later  date ;  all  these  alterations  are  for  the 
most  part  stylistic,  and  where  they  pass  beyond  style 
we  encounter  nothing  upon  which  we  can  base  an  argu- 
ment for  bringing  down  the  composition  of  the  gospel 
to  a  later  period. 

Hence  there  remains  only  the  subject-matter  peculiar 
to  St  Matthew  and  to  St  Luke.  Where  this  consists 
of  new  sayings,  discourses,  parables,  and  stories,  the  same 
remarks  apply  as  in  the  case  of  the  corrections  of  Q  and 
St  Mark,  although  this  new  material  bears  for  the  most 
part  the  stamp  of  second-hand  or  third-hand  tradition. 
No  one  can  maintain  that  these  traditions  cannot  have 
taken  their  present  form  until  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  or  at  least  until  after  the  year  60  a.d.1 

this  circumstance  has  contributed  to  make  his  verdict  on  Q  more  un- 
favourable ;  it,  however,  does  not  affect  the  question  how  late  the 
gospels  fall. 

1  Misguided  attempts  have  indeed  been  made  to  prove  that  in  some  of 
these  passages  there  are  historical  references  to  events  that  occurred  in 
the  last  quarter  of  the  first  century,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  second. 
These  attempts  are  scarcely  mentioned  nowadays. 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  141 

Neither  can  it  be  proved  that  they  bear  the  trace  of 
foreign,  extra-Palestinian,  influence.  We  may  therefore 
leave  them  out  of  consideration.  Accordingly,  we  are 
concerned  with  only  the  following  passages : — 

1.  The  story  of  the  Infancy  in  St  Matthew,  chaps,  i., 
ii.1 

2.  The  commission  to  St  Peter,  chap.  xvi.  17-19. 

3.  The  words  concerning  the  practice  of  discipline 
in  the  community,  xviii.  15-17. 

4.  The  death  of  Judas,  etc.,  xxvii.  3-10. 

5.  The  wife  of  Pilate,  xxvii.  19. 

6.  Pilate  and  the  people,  xxvii.  24  f. 

7.  The  miracles  at  our  Lord's  death,  xxvii.  51-53. 

8.  The  watch  at  the  grave,  xxvii.   62-66 ;   xxviii. 
11-15. 

9.  The  angel  who  rolls  away  the  stone,  xxviii.  2  f. 

10.  The  appearance  of  our  Lord  to  the  women, 
xxviii.  9  f. 

11.  The  appearance  of  our  Lord  to  the  eleven 
disciples,  xxviii.  16  f. 

(a)  The  story  of  the  Infancy  in  St  Luke  i.,  ii.,  iii. 

23-38.2 

(b)  St  Peter's  draught  of  fishes,  St  Luke  v.  4-9. 

(c)  The  woman  who  was  a  sinner,  vii.  36-50. 

(d)  A  woman's  exclamation  concerning  the  blessed- 

ness of  the  mother  of  our  Lord,  xi.  27  f. 

(e)  Our  Lord  before  Herod,  xxiii.  6-12. 

1  I  do  not  intend  here  to  prove  afresh  that  these  chapters  have  from 
the  beginning  formed  part  of  the  first  gospel. 

8  It  is  certain  that  these  passages  ought  not  (as  with  Marcion)  to  be 
eliminated  from  the  third  gospel. 


142  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

(f)  Our   Lord    and  the  women   on   the   way   to 

Golgotha,  xxiii.  27-31. 

(g)  The  thief  upon  the  cross,  xxiii.  39-43 ;   also 

the  words  from  the  cross,  xxiii.  34  and  46. 

(h)  The  journey  to  Emmaus,  xxiv.  13-35. 

(i)  The  conclusion  of  the  stories  of  the  Resurrec- 
tion, xxiv.  36-53. 

(k)  The  converse  of  our  Lord  with  His  disciples 
after  His  Resurrection  ;  and  His  Ascension, 
Acts  i. 

Let  us  take  first  the  passages  peculiar  to  St  Matthew. 
Here  the  story  of  the  Infancy,  chaps,  i.  and  ii.,  is  often 
said  to  be  of  very  late  date ;  indeed,  by  many  critics  it  is 
brought  down  into  the  second  century  and  its  Palestinian 
origin  is  denied.  But,  the  episode  of  the  Magi  (ii.  1-12) 
being  left  for  the  present  out  of  consideration,  there  are 
three  circumstances  that  commend  caution  :  in  the  first 
place,  the  conception  of  Pre-existence  is  entirely  absent ; 
secondly,  the  newly-born  "  Jesus "  is  so  named  because 
He  will  save  "  His  nation  "  (this  nation  alone  is  spoken 
of  in  i.  21);  thirdly,  the  whole  narrative  breathes  of 
Palestine,  and  is  constructed  so  as  to  fit  exactly  into 
the  scheme  of  fulfilment  of  Old  Testament  prophecy. 
Critics  may  call  this  narrative  late,  but  in  saying  this 
they  only  express  the  fact  that  they  find  themselves  out 
of  sympathy  with  it ;  and  to  be  in  sympathy  with  a 
narrative  of  this  kind  is  especially  difficult  for  us 
Westerns  of  the  nineteenth  and  twentieth  centuries ! 

A  story  of  the  birth  of  our  Lord,  that  had  grown  up 
freely  in  Gentile-Christian  soil  about  the  years  50  or  80 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  143 

or  100  a.d.,  would  certainly  have  been  of  quite  a 
different  character  from  the  story  of  the  first  gospel ! 
To  say  nothing  of  the  genealogy  (i.  1-17) — which,  both 
in  its  whole  structure  as  well  as  by  the  amazing  bold- 
ness of  its  mention  of  Tamar  and  the  wife  of  Uriah, 
becomes  the  less  intelligible  the  later  the  date  one 
assigns  to  it — who  can  fail  to  recognise  that  the  first 
evangelist  in  the  central  section  of  the  story  (i.  18-25) 
has  his  attention  and  interest  fixed  simply  and  solely  upon 
the  single  declaration,  yevvrjOeh  €k  irvev/jLaro^  aylov  ? 

(1)  This  yevvrjdei?  e/c  irvev/xaTO^  aylov  is  not  of  course 
a  primary  creed  ;  it  is,  indeed,  historically  preceded  by 
two — perhaps  three — preparatory  stages ;  but  even  for 
this  very  reason,  as  will  be  seen,  it  remains  on  the  most 
primitive  lines.  The  first  stage  is  described  by  the 
formula  reproduced  by  St  Paul  in  Rom.  i.  4  :  6  opicrdeh 
vlos  Qeov  Kara  irvev/xa  ayicocruvrjg  e£  avaaracrecos  veicpwv : 
the  second — if  indeed  we  may  count  in  this  way — is 
given  in  the  Story  of  the  Transfiguration  (odros  eariv 
6  uios  fxov  6  ayaTrrjros) ;  the  third  in  the  Story  of  the 
Baptism  (the  Descent  of  the  Spirit  and  eyd>  a-rjixepov 
yeyevvriKa  ere).  Their  experience  of  the  Resurrection 
at  once  firmly  established  the  disciples  in  the  faith 
that  Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God  proceeding  from  the 
Spirit  of  God.  Immediately,  however,  attempts  began 
to  be  made  to  give  some  definite  basis  to  this  creed. 
Did  He  become  Son  of  God  at  the  Resurrection  ?  No ! 
but  at  the  very  first  moment  of  His  appearance  on 
earth.  But  the  latter  idea  did  not  displace  the  three 
others  which  maintained  themselves  in  peaceful  juxta- 
position (indeed,  they  did  not  absolutely  exclude  one 


144  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

another,  seeing  that  it  was  a  question  of  the  out- 
pouring of  the  Spirit  which  could  happen  again  and 
again).  However,  the  very  fact  that  these  views 
continued  to  exist  side  by  side  is  a  guarantee  that 
the  new  view  was  not  an  intruder  from  the  sphere 
of  heathen  mythology,1  but  a  logical  conclusion  from 
the  belief  that  our  Lord  was  God's  Son  by  the  operation 
of  the  Holy  Spirit.  Now,  it  of  course  seems  certain  that 
St  Paul  never  even  thought  of  the  Virgin  Birth,  but  it 
is  not  thereby  proved  that  this  "  working  hypothesis " 
of  the  Faith  had  not  already  made  its  appearance  in 
some  Christian  communities  of  the  time  of  St  Paul. 
The  article  of  faith,  "  God's  Son  by  the  operation  of  the 

1  As,  I  am  sorry  to  say,  even  Gunkel  asserts  in  Zum  Religionsgesch. 
Verstandniss  des  N.  T.  (1903),  S.  64  ff.  One  is  not  surprised  that  others 
do  not  trouble  themselves  about  the  special  genesis  of  the  Jewish  - 
Christian  idea,  and  fly  at  once  to  mythological  explanations ;  but  a 
theologian  is  surely  bound  to  examine  things  more  microscopically. 
The  Jewish-Christian  idea  at  its  root  has  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
mythology,  and  also  in  its  later  history  every  mythological  taint  was 
anxiously  guarded  against.  Such  efforts  must,  of  course,  have  been 
vain  as  soon  as  people  began  to  picture  the  event  in  the  imagination. 
For  a  long  period,  however,  the  presence  of  the  mythological  element 
was  involuntary,  and  the  idea  was  kept  in  close  touch  with  its  Jewish 
origin.  The  original  conception,  "Of  the  Holy  Spirit,"  where 
"  Spirit"  in  Semitic  is,  as  is  well  known,  of  the  feminine  gender,  and 
therefore  excludes  all  conceptions  of  sexual  mythology,  is  not  only  not 
forgotten  in  the  Greek  gospel  of  the  Hebrews,  but  has  in  many  other 
quarters  set  a  bridle  upon  the  imagination.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
not  to  be  denied  that  the  ancient  Oriental  idea,  that  the  Saviour  was 
to  be  born  of  an  unknown  father,  and  that  his  mother  would  be  a 
virgin,  may  have  mingled  itself  in  the  faith  of  many  when  once  specu- 
lative study  of  the  Old  Testament  had  referred  Isaiah  vii.  to  the  origin 
of  our  Lord.  On  the  whole  question,  vide  Franckh, ' '  Die  Geburtsgesch. 
Jesu  Christi  im  Lichte  der  altorientalischen  Weltanschauung  "  (Philo- 
thesiafUr  P.  Kleinert,  1907,  S.  201  ff.). 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  145 

Holy  Spirit,"  had  its  own  peculiar  logic ;  catechisms 
were  not  yet  in  existence ;  all  those  who  called  Jesus 
their  Lord  and  believed  that  all  that  they  venerated  in 
Him  was  due  to  the  influence  of  the  Spirit,  though  their 
imagination,  their  logic,  their  gnosis  might  start  them 
along  totally  different  paths,  were  yet  of  one  faith. 
The  path,  however,  which  led  back  from  the  Resurrec- 
tion to  the  first  beginnings  of  Jesus  was  certainly  the 
simplest  and  most  obvious.  It  may  have  been — indeed, 
probably  it  was — taken  at  once.  A  Mark,  even  a  Paul, 
may  have  taken  it  and  followed  it  to  the  end  without 
feeling,  either  of  them,  impelled  to  state  in  set  terms  the 
conclusion — that  the  Spirit  of  God  had  a  part  in  the 
conception  of  our  Lord — either  in  the  gospel  of  the  one 
or  in  the  epistles  of  the  other.  They  perhaps  regarded 
it  as  self-evident.  St  Paul,  at  all  events,  had  much 
greater  things  to  say  concerning  the  Lord. 

(2)  But  the  conviction  that  our  Lord  was  born  of 
the  Holy  Spirit  did  not,  according  to  Jewish  ideas, 
involve  the  exclusion  of  an  earthly  father  any  more 
than  of  an  earthly  mother,  although  "  ruah  "  is  feminine. 
Hence  one  may,  indeed  must,  cherish  very  serious  doubts 
as  to  whether  the  idea  of  the  Virgin  Birth  would  have 
ever  made  its  appearance  on  Jewish  soil  if  it  had  not 
been  for  Isa.  vii.  14-  What  is  it  that  lies  at  the  basis 
of  St  Matt.  i.  18-25?  Simply  two  elements:  (1)  the 
conviction :  yevvydeh  ck  7rj/eu/AaTO?  aylov :  and  (2)  the 
passage  in  Isaiah :  ISov  r\  7rap6evo<;  ev  yacrrpi  e£ei  /cat 
Te^erai  viov,  kcu  KaXeo-ovcriv  to  ovofia  avrov  E/x/xai/oi»/A. 
Many  critics  regard  it  as  self-evident  that  this  passage 
could  not  have  been  thus  used  until  after  the  belief  in 

10 


146  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

the  Virgin  Birth  had  already  taken  form ;  but  such  a 
view  is  by  no  means  self-evident.  It  would  only  be 
self-evident  if  the  origin  of  this  belief  on  Jewish  soil 
were  a  very  simple  matter,  either  because  Jews  had 
access  to  heathen  mythology,  or  because  the  conviction 
that  the  Holy  Spirit  played  a  part  in  the  origin  of  our 
Lord  necessarily  led  to  this  conclusion.  But  neither  of 
these  conditions  admits  of  demonstration * ;  indeed,  it  is 
easy  to  establish  their  opposite. 

Zahn  (in  his  Commentary  on  St  Matthew)  and  others 
demand  proof  that  at  the  time  of  our  Lord  this  passage 
of  Isaiah  was  interpreted  of  the  Messiah ;  and  they 
flaunt  in  one's  face  the  fact  that  no  Rabbi,  so  far  as  we 
know,  has  ever  been  led,  because  of  Isa.  vii.,  or  any 
other  reason,  to  suppose  that  the  Messiah  was  to  be  born 
of  a  virgin.  They  are  perhaps  correct,  but  they  over- 
look the  fact  that  the  situation  had  entirely  changed 
for  those  who  had  become  Christians.  The  faith  that 
Jesus  was  born  of  the  Ruah  of  God  necessarily  opened 
up  for  these  converts  new  sources  of  prophecy  in  the 
New  Testament.  Acoarei  icvpios  avrog  v/uliv  vqfieiovJ 
With  this  majestic  utterance  Isaiah  introduces  the 
birth  of  Immanuel !  To  Christians  themselves  "  the 
virgin "  may  at  first  have  been  as  strange  and  embar- 
rassing as  the  name  "  Immanuel " ;  but  they  were 
obliged  to  come  to  terms  with  them,  for  the  promise, 
that  to  the  nation  which  wearied  its  God  would  be 
given  a  sign  whereby  the  believing  part  of  the  nation 
would  find  their  Saviour,  was  too  grand  and  too  plainly 

1  The  testimony  adduced  from  Philo  is  without  importance  ;  besides, 
it  is  strangely  out  of  place  to  bring  in  Philo  here. 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  147 

fulfilled  to  be  passed  by.  Therefore,  Jesus  was  born  of 
a  virgin,  for  so  it  is  written  !  Here  two  objections  may 
be  raised ;  in  the  first  place,  it  may  be  said  that  those 
who  were  capable  of  the  train  of  thought  which  resulted 
in  the  idea  of  birth  from  a  virgin,  were  also  capable  of 
directly  adopting  the  myth  of  a  virgin  birth ;  and, 
secondly,  we  may  be  told  that  it  is  only  in  the  Greek 
text  of  Isaiah  that  there  is  any  mention  of  a  virgin, 
whilst  the  original  text  at  the  very  least  left  open  the 
interpretation  "young  woman."  But  the  reception  of 
a  myth  demands  quite  different  historical  premisses 
from  those  which  would  explain  how  men  could  arrive 
at  a  conclusion,  which  looks  like  a  myth,  and  yet  really 
has  nothing  to  do  with  mythology.  A  myth  of  this 
kind  necessarily  includes,  not  only  a  divine  father,  who 
is  wanting  here,  but  also  a  concrete  directness  in  the 
treatment  of  detail  which  is  likewise  entirely  absent 
here.  It  may  be  true  that,  even  assuming  that  the 
belief  was  simply  derived  from  the  sacred  text,  still  the 
very  fact  that  men  could  come  to  believe  that  Jesus  was 
born  of  a  virgin  by  the  operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
in  itself  shows  a  disposition  of  mind  that  was  not  present 
among  Jews  a  few  generations  earlier ;  but  between 
such  a  disposition  and  the  readiness  simply  to  convert  a 
heathen  myth  in  suum  nsum  [or,  rather,  to  borrow  its 
idea]  there  still  yawns  a  gulf  that  cannot  be  bridged 
over.  As  for  the  objection  that  the  word  "virgin11 
stands  only  in  the  Greek  text,  it  is  not  only  probable 
that  the  combination  which  led  to  the  belief  originated 
among  the  Hellenistic  Jews  of  Palestine  (it  is  well 
known  that  a  section  of  the  strict  Jewish  Christians 


148  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

always  refused  to  accept  it),  but  it  also  seems  probable 
to  me  that  even  in  pre-Christian  times  many  orthodox 
Jews,  in  the  course  of  their  brooding  study  of  the 
original  text  of  scripture,  were  led  to  the  conclusion 
that  Isa.  vii.  spoke  of  a  virgin  as  the  mother  of  the 
Messiah.  Accordingly,  neither  the  yevvriBei?  e/c  Trvev/j-a- 
to?  aylov  nor  the  Virgin  Birth  compel  us  to  assume 
an  advanced  period  in  the  development  of  Christian 
doctrine ;  on  the  contrary,  these  ideas,  which  have 
nothing  to  do  with  the  idea  of  Pre  -  existence,  are 
primitive  in  themselves,  and  are  declared  to  be  primitive 
by  the  fact  that  at  the  end  of  the  first  century,  or  at 
least  the  beginning  of  the  second  century,  they  were 
the  common  property  of  Christians,  as  St  John  (chap,  i., 
according  to  the  true  text)  and  Ignatius  teach  us. 
But  every  belief  which  at  that  time  was  the  common 
property  of  Christians  (including  the  Palestinian 
churches)  must  be  traced  back  to  the  churches  of 
Palestine,  and  must  be  ascribed  to  the  first  decades 
after  the  Resurrection. 

It  is  therefore  beyond  dispute  that  in  the  most  im- 
portant verses  (i.  18-25)  of  the  story  of  the  Infancy  in 
the  first  gospel  nothing  is  to  be  found  that  could  not 
have  been  written  about  the  year  70  a.d.  ;  and  the 
analysis  of  the  section  which  we  have  here  undertaken 
has  the  advantage  that  it  dispenses  with  all  but  two 
certain  and  clearly  established  factors — with  the  fact 
that  the  Church  from  the  beginning  ascribed  what  was 
characteristic  in  our  Lord's  personality  to  the  special 
operation  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  with  the  passage  from 
the  Prophet  Isaiah.     If,  however,  in  the  end  a  con- 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  149 

ception  made  its  appearance  which  converged  with 
contemporary  heathen  mythological  conceptions — we 
can  only  speak  of  convergence  never  of  amalgamation 
in  the  Catholic  Church — such  a  question  belongs  to  the 
vast  subject  of  the  striking  convergences  of  that 
syncretic  epoch,  which  were  at  first,  for  the  most  part, 
involuntary. 

The  part  of  the  story  of  the  Infancy  containing  the 
genealogy  and  the  Virgin  Birth  stands  in  no  connection 
with  the  legend  of  the  Magi.1  The  abode  of  Joseph 
and  Mary  in  Egypt  is  perhaps  historical;  and  yet  it 
seems  to  me  quite  possible  that  such  a  legend,  even 
if  there  were  no  fact  behind  it,  could  have  taken 
form  in  the  actual  lifetime  of  the  nearest  relatives  of 
our  Lord ;  for  the  visit  which  it  records  lay  far  behind 
the  personal  recollection  of  the  brothers  of  our  Lord. 
Still,  the  process  of  the  formation  of  the  legend  would 
be  much  simpler  to  understand  if  this  incident  were  a 
fact.2     Whether  a  fact  of  any  kind  lay  at  the  founda- 

1  Chap.  ii.  1  begins,  without  connecting  with  the  preceding  chapter, 
as  an  entirely  new  section,  and  seems  to  presuppose  that  the  birth  in 
Bethlehem  had  been  previously  narrated.  We  cannot  tell  how  it  was 
that  this  strange  arrangement  came  about. 

2  In  support  of  this  we  may  be  inclined  also  to  appeal  with  some 
reserve  to  ancient  Jewish  legends  about  our  Lord.  On  the  other  hand, 
we  cannot  overlook  the  likelihood  that  we  have  here  a  legend  with  a 
theological  tendency  parallel  to  the  leading  of  the  people  of  Israel  out 
of  Egypt.  As  for  the  birth  in  Bethlehem,  the  historian  cannot  go 
beyond  the  verdict  "  non  liquet."  He  cannot  get  rid  of  the  suspicion 
that  the  story  is  due  to  Mic.  v.  1  ;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  difficult  to 
comprehend  how  the  statement  that  Jesus  was  born  in  Bethlehem 
remained  uncontradicted,  if  it  wa8  not  a  fact.  But  was  it  perhaps 
contradicted,  and  is  it  only  we  who  have  heard  nothing  of  such  a 
contradiction  ? 


150  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

tion  of  the  legend  of  the  Magi  is  a  matter  quite  beyond 
our  ken.  It  is  in  itself  by  no  means  impossible  that 
fiayoi  a7ro  avaroXwv  once  came  to  Jerusalem  at  the 
time  of  Herod,  in  order  to  acquire  information  con- 
cerning the  Jewish  Messiah  in  connection  with  some 
astronomical  occurrence,1  and  it  is  also  possible  that 
the  Massacre  of  the  Innocents  in  Bethlehem  has 
an  historical  nucleus  of  some  kind2;  but  the  story 
of  the  Magi  is  narrated  with  such  a  naive  disregard 
of  all  probability  that  the  question  whether  the 
events  really  happened  in  the  life  of  our  Lord 
does  not  present  itself  to  the  historian.  Here  the 
first  Evangelist  has  followed  a  legend  that  had  taken 
form  among  a  section  of  the  people  untouched  by 
historical  culture ;  it  is,  however,  going  too  far  to 
have  recourse  to  the  Diaspora,  or  even  to  Rome,  for 
the  origin  of  this  legend,  and  to  imagine  that  the 
story  is  based  upon  some  Oriental  embassage  to  the 
palace  of  the  Caesars.  The  "  Star  out  of  Jacob,11  com- 
bined with  the  presence  of  Chaldaean  astrologers  in 
Jerusalem,  is  quite  sufficient.  As  to  the  question  how 
early  or  how  late  such  a  folk-tale  could  have  made  its 
appearance  in  Jewish-Christian  circles  no  sensible  person 

1  The  story  of  the  Magi  is  not  deduced  from  prophecy  ;  for  in  it  no 
reference  is  made  to  prophecy.  The  legend  obviously  contains  an 
accusation  against  Herod  and  the  leaders  of  the  people  ;  it  is  aggressive, 
not  apologetic.  Whether  it  is  intended  to  forecast  the  idea  of  the 
Gentile  Church  is  at  least  doubtful ;  rather  it  seems,  without  any 
special  bias,  to  aim  at  the  glorification  of  our  Lord. 

9  As  a  simple  invention  from  prophecy  the  legend  seems  very  crass. 
We,  however,  have  no  means  that  would  enable  us  to  give  an  assured 
judgment  on  this  point. 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  151 

will  care  to  give  a  definite  answer  in  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge. 

Among  the  passages  peculiar  to  St  Matthew  the 
sections  xvi.  17  ff.  and  xviii.  15  ff.  strike  one  as  betray- 
ing a  later  date.  They  do  not,  however,  come  into 
consideration  in  connection  with  our  question  whether 
the  gospel  was  written  some  years  earlier  or  later.  If 
we  are  convinced  that  these  sections  are  of  relatively  early 
date,  and  that  they  belong  to  Palestinian  tradition,  then 
they  can  be  just  as  well  assigned  to  the  period  before 
as  to  the  period  after  60  or  70  a.d.  If,  however,  one 
agrees  with  many  critics  in  the  opinion  that  they  are  of 
a  much  later  date,  then  one  must  take  into  consideration 
the  probability  that  they  simply  do  not  belong  to  the 
original  content  of  the  gospel  and  are  to  be  regarded  as 
later  interpolations.1  In  regard  to  xvi.  17  ff.  the  latter 
opinion  is  the  more  probable  in  that  we  are  here 
altogether  unprepared  for  the  mention  of  the  Church 
and  for  the  promise  of  its  impregnability.  If  im- 
pregnability is  to  be  mentioned,  we  should  rather  expect 
a  promise  that  St  Peter  would  at  the  last  stand  firm 
against  the  assault  of  Hell.  Indeed,  ancient  commen- 
tators have  interpreted  the  passage  as  if  it  ran :  ov 
KaTicrxyvova-iv  aov,  and  perhaps  it  did  once  run  thus ; 
cf.  Tatian  (while  the  words :  kcu  cttI  tovth  ry  irerpa 
oiKoSofxrj(T<a  i*ov  rr]v  cKKXtjcriav  were  also  wanting). 

The  remaining  stories  peculiar  to  St  Matthew  are 
all  connected  with  the  Crucifixion  and  the  Resurrection 
of  our  Lord.     Among  these  the  stories  of  the  death  of 

1  Hence  the  date  of  the  gospel  ought  not  to  be  made  to  depend  upon 
them. 


152  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Judas,  of  Pilate's  wife,1  and  of  Pilate  and  the  people, 
contain  nothing  that  could  not  have  been  already 
related  at  a  very  early  date.  In  particular,  xxvii.  7 
presupposes  that  both  the  author  and  the  first  readers 
knew  the  situation  of  the  "Field  of  Blood,"  near 
Jerusalem,  which  was  formerly  called  "The  Potter's 
Field."  The  tradition  thus  originated  in  Jerusalem, 
and  it  is  easier  to  suppose  that  it  arose  before  the 
destruction  of  the  city.  Again,  the  quite  isolated  and 
altogether  extraordinary  story  of  those  who  rose  from 
the  dead  at  the  moment  of  our  Lord's  death  (they, 
moreover,  appear  to  many  in  the  Holy  City)  seems  to 
me  to  be  primitive ;  for  on  dogmatic  grounds  each 
successive  decade  would  only  raise  a  more  and  more 
strenuous  protest  against  its  appearance.  The  legends 
of  the  Resurrection  contain  a  decidedly  late  piece  of 
tradition  in  the  story  (xxviii.  9,  10)  that  our  Lord 
appeared  to  the  women  on  their  return  from  the 
sepulchre.  However,  not  only  on  internal  but  also  on 
external  grounds2  this  passage  may  be  judged  not  to 
belong  to  the  original  content  of  the  gospel,  and  there- 
fore gives  no  information  concerning  the  date  of  its 
composition.  The  concluding  passage  (xxviii.  16  ff.), 
recording  the  appearance  of  the  Risen  Christ  to  His 
disciples  in  Galilee,  is  ancient  tradition  ;  it  is,  however, 
doubtful  whether  the  words  spoken  by  our  Lord  belong 

1  The  intervention  of  the  wife  of  the  judge  in  favour  of  the 
delinquent  is  a  trait  which,  as  is  shown  by  the  stories  of  the  persecu- 
tions, is  often  historical,  often  also  fictitious. 

2  Verse  11  connects  closely  with  verse  8 ;  accordingly  the  verses  9 
and  10  appear  to  be  interpolated.  They  are,  besides,  a  doublet  to 
verses  6  and  7. 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  153 

to  the  original  gospel.  The  declaration  "  iS66q  p.01 
TrcLcra.  e£ov<ria  ev  ovpavw  kcu  eirl  y*;?  "  has  a  very  different 
sound  from  Matt.  xi.  27 :  iravra  pot  irapeSoQri  viro  rov 
"rrarpo?  pov  " : l  neither  is  there  anything  in  the  content 
of  the  gospel  that  prepares  us  for  the  succeeding 
passage.  If,  however,  these  passages  must  be  accounted 
to  belong  to  the  original  gospel,  then  there  is  nothing 
either  in  the  general  missionary  commission  or  in  the 
Trinitarian  formula  that  would  prevent  our  assigning 
them  to  the  period  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
The  Trinitarian  formula  was  not  a  creation  of  St  Paul, 
but  was  already  adopted  by  him  from  the  Jewish 
Christians.2  Finally,  the  stories  of  the  Watch  at  the 
Sepulchre  and  of  the  Angel  (xxvii.  62-66 ;  xxviii.  2  ff. 
11-15)  are  apologetical  devices  which  could  have  come 
into  use  very  early  in  the  history  of  the  controversy 
with  the  Jews,  especially  if  the  Watch  at  the  Sepulchre 
may  be  regarded  as  historical.  A  "custodia11  of  this 
kind  over  the  bodies  of  executed  persons  is  also 
mentioned  elsewhere;  cf.  the  Martyrs  of  Lyons  in 
Euseb.,  v.  i.  59  :  ara^ou?  irape(f>v\aTTOv  pera  o~tp<xtiw- 
tikw  e7r  ipeXecas  ripe  pan  crvxvai$.  Accordingly,  there  is 
nothing  in  the  narratives  peculiar  to  St  Matthew  that 
can  disturb  our  confidence  in  the  date  we  have  been 
led  to  assign  to  that  gospel. 

Passing  on  to  the  consideration  of  the  passages 
peculiar  to  St  Luke,  we  are  at  first  confronted  with  the 
long  story  of  the  Infancy,  chaps,  i.,  ii.,  iii.  23-38.  I 
cannot  here  produce  the  proof  that   this  passage  not 

1  Scil.,  all  knowledge  of  God,  all  xapdSoiris. 

2  Vide  my  Kirchcnverfassung  (1910),  S.  187  ff. 


154  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

only  depends  upon  two  main  sources,  but  also  proceeds 
in  the  last  instance  from  two  distinct  religious  strata x ; 
for  the  story  of  the  infancy  of  the  Baptist,  which  even 
now  bears  upon  the  face  of  it  that  it  was  not  originally 
intended  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  history  of 
our  Lord,  must  have  originated  in  the  circle  of  the 
disciples  of  St  John  (i.  5-25,  46-55,  57-80) ;  and  it  is 
also  evident  that  iii.  1  ff.  (so  far  as  fresh  tradition  is 
here  added  to  St  Mark  and  Q)  is  derived  from  the  same 
circle.2  The  passage  i.  39-45,  56  binds  together  the 
two  entirely  independent  stories,  the  first  of  which 
celebrated  the  Baptist,  not  as  the  forerunner  of  the 
Messiah  Jesus,  but  as  the  preparer  of  the  way  for  the 
coming  of  Jahweh  the  Saviour  (i.  16,  17).  The  story 
of  St  John's  infancy  is  thus  very  ancient,  and  presents 
the  tradition  of  the  disciples  of  St  John  in  Lukan  dress. 
The  story  of  the  infancy  of  our  Lord  comes  from  quite 

1  [The  translator  may  perhaps  be  allowed  to  refer  to  a  work  of 
his,  in  which  the  question  of  the  two  sources  and  of  the  Johannine 
character  of  one  of  these  is  dealt  with  in  detail.  A  Johannine  Document 
in  the  Third  Gospel,  Luzac,  1902.] 

8  Is  it  too  much  to  suppose  that  St  Luke,  before  he  joined  the 
Christian  community,  was  an  adherent  of  the  disciples  of  the  Baptist, 
and  had  even  at  that  time  made  historical  studies,  which  he  at  a  later 
date  made  use  of  for  his  gospel  ?  The  attitude  which  he  adopts  in  the 
gospel  (also  in  the  Acts)  towards  the  disciples  of  the  Baptist  and  the 
"Spirit"  suggests  this  question.  There  is  yet  another  point.  In 
the  clause  (iii.  15),  irpoffioKavros  rod  \aov  «ol  $taKoyi£ofi.tvwv  irivToov 
iv  rals  Kapfiiais  avruv  irtpi  rod  lecdvvov,  pi)  iron  avrhs  tti)  6  XpitrrSs, 
St  Luke  has  probably  reproduced  his  own  experiences,  which,  after  the 
narrative  of  chap,  i.,  are  very  intelligible.  This  narrative  can  only 
proceed  from  the  circle  of  the  Baptist,  and  only  one  who  stood  in  close 
relationship  with  this  circle  could  have  used  it  to  introduce  the  history 
of  our  Lord. 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  155 

different  circles  from  those  whence  sprang  the  corre- 
sponding story  in  St  Matthew.  Interest  in  Joseph  is 
here  almost  entirely  wanting.  St  Mary  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  thrust  into  the  foreground  ;  vide  i.  26-45,  56 ;  ii. 
5,  16,  19,  35-35,  48,  51  ;  indeed,  from  ii.  19,  51  it 
follows  that  the  stories  are  intended  to  be  regarded  as 
derived  in  the  last  instance  from  St  Mary  herself. 
Here  we  are,  of  course,  destitute  of  all  means  of 
historical  control,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  these 
stories  have  been  freely  edited  by  a  poetic  artist, 
namely,  St  Luke.  But  there  can  be  just  as  little  doubt 
that  St  Luke  regarded  them  as  proceeding  from  St 
Mary ;  for  his  practice  elsewhere  as  an  historian  proves 
that  he  could  not  have  himself  invented  a  fiction  like 
this.  Hence  we  may  conclude  that  they  came  to  him 
claiming  the  authority  of  St  Mary,  and  therefore  certainly 
from  Palestine.  The  only  question  that  interests  us 
here  is  whether  such  stories  conflict  with  the  date  we 
have  been  led  to  assign  to  the  third  gospel.1  No  one 
will  maintain  that  they  directly  favour  so  early  a  date ; 
and  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  impossible  to 
contend    that    they   directly   conflict    with   our   date. 

1  The  stories  are  essentially  homogeneous  in  character.  The  circle 
whence  they  proceed  had  the  most  profound  veneration  for  St  Mary,  and 
placed  her  next  her  Son  in  a  position  of  great  importance.  Such  feel- 
ings do  not  arise  of  themselves,  they  must  go  back  to  the  impression 
made  by  the  personality  of  St  Mary  herself.  A  poet  under  the  influence 
of  this  impression,  with  poetic  licence,  has  transferred  to  the  time  of 
the  Conception  and  of  the  Birth  what  really  belonged  to  the  inward 
life  of  the  mother  of  our  Lord  at  a  later  period.  During  His  lifetime 
our  Lord  found  no  faith  in  His  own  family.  It  seems  to  me  almost 
impossible  to  imagine  that  this  poet  was  at  work  before  the  death  of 
St  Mary. 


156  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

Nothing  that  is  mythological  in  the  sense  of  Greek  or 
Oriental  myth  is  to  be  found  in  these  accounts;  all 
here  is  in  the  spirit  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  most  of 
it  reads  like  a  passage  from  the  historical  books  of  that 
ancient  volume.  As  for  parallels  with  ancient  stories 
of  gods  and  heroes,  it  would  be  treating  them  too 
seriously  to  describe  them  as  scanty  and  feeble,  and  no 
one  hitherto  has  been  able  to  raise  them  above  the  sphere 
of  the  purely  accidental.  Seeing  that  we  know  so  little 
of  St  Mary,  not  even,  in  spite  of  all  the  legends,  how 
long  she  lived,  we  have  absolutely  no  fixed  point  upon 
which  to  base  the  discussion  of  the  question  :  How  it  is 
that  she  could  have  been  made  responsible  for  these 
stories  ?  From  Acts  i.  1 4  we  receive  the  latest  historical 
information  about  her.  There  is  a  certain  probability 
in  favour  of  the  view  that  St  Philip  and  his  daughters 
transmitted  to  St  Luke  gospel  traditions — perhaps 
these  stories  were  included  among  them.  The  very 
large  number  of  new  features  which  St  Luke  has  in 
common  with  the  fourth  gospel  in  no  instance  suggests 
to  the  critic  that  these  features  must  have  been  con- 
ceived after  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  or,  at 
least,  after  the  year  60  a.d.  Together  with  much  that 
is  questionable  they  include  a  great  deal  that  is  free 
from  objection,  and  accordingly  historical;  hence  we 
may  regard  them,  though  foreign  to  St  Mark,  as  ancient 
tradition  of  Palestinian  origin. 

Passing  over  the  narratives  v.  4-9  (St  Peter's  draught 
of  fishes),  vii.  36-50  (the  woman  who  was  a  sinner), 
xi.  27  f.  (the  woman's  cry  of  joy  over  the  mother  of 
our  Lord),  which  are  neutral  in  regard  to  the  question 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  157 

of  the  date  of  the  third  gospel,1  we  forthwith  arrive 
at  the  incidents  peculiar  to  St  Luke  in  the  history  of 
the  Crucifixion  and  of  the  Resurrection.  But  here,  also, 
the  accounts  xxiii.  6-12,  27-31,  34,  39-43,  46,  though 
they  give  rise  to  serious  doubt,  do  not  permit  any 
conclusions  as  to  the  date  of  the  gospel.2  Hence  we 
are  only  left  with  the  question  whether  the  stories  of 
the  Resurrection  (including  the  Ascension)  enter  a 
protest  against  an  early  date  for  the  twofold  work. 

Here  everything  really  reduces  itself  to  the  single 
question  whether  the  idea  that  the  apparitions  of  the 
Risen  Christ  in  and  near  Jerusalem  were  the  first 
apparitions  could  have  made  its  appearance  during  the 
first  generation  after  the  death  of  our  Lord.  The 
question  does  not  exist  for  those  critics  who,  like  Zahn, 
Loofs,  and  others,  believe  that  these  apparitions  were 
actually  the  first ;  but  seeing  that  these  scholars  allow 
that  the  accounts  in  St  Mark  and  St  Matthew  pre- 
suppose apparitions,  or  a  single  apparition,  in  Galilee 
as  the  first,  they  too  acknowledge  the  reality  of  the 
difficulty  that,  even  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
different  opinions  already  prevailed  concerning  the 
locality  of  the  first  apparition  of  our  Lord.  In  fact,  it 
must  be  acknowledged  that  controversy  on  this  point 
goes  back  to  the  earliest  times,  indeed,  that  there  was 
perhaps  never  a  time  when  Christendom  was  firmly  and 

1  The  story  of  the  Draught  of  Fishes  is  also  neutral,  even  if,  as  is 
probable,  it  is  not  correctly  placed  in  St  Luke,  but  belongs  to  the 
narratives  of  the  Resurrection. 

2  The  story  of  "Jesus  and  Herod"  may  be  historical;  St  Luke 
possessed,  as  his  work  shows,  special  sources  of  information  on  this 
theme. 


158  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

unanimously  agreed  upon  this  point.  Taking  even  our 
four  gospels,  we  shall  find  that  each  of  them,  if  they 
are  closely  studied,  conceals  a  double  account,  and  in 
addition  we  have  many  other  ancient  and  conflicting 
authorities.  The  following  summary  will  here  be 
instructive * : — 

1.  A  source  of  St  Luke  (xxiv.  34) :  St  Peter  was 
the  first  to  see  the  Lord  (where  ?  when  ?). 

2.  St  Paul  (1  Cor.  xv.  5) :  St  Peter  was  the  first  to 
see  the  Lord,  then  the  Twelve  (where  ?  when  ?). 

3.  The  conjectural  original  of  St  Mark  (vide  xiv.  28  ; 
xvi.  7) :  St  Peter  and  the  other  disciples  were  the  first 
to  see  the  Lord,  and  this  in  Galilee,2  after  the  third  day. 

4.  The  gospel  of  St  Peter :  St  Peter  and  some  other 
disciples  (among  them  Levi  the  son  of  Alphaeus)  were 
the  first  to  see  the  Lord  in  Galilee  while  they  were 
fishing,  after  the  third  day. 

5.  The  source  of  St  John  xxi.  (undoubtedly  intended 
originally  as  an  account  of  the  first  appearance  of  our 
Lord) :  St  Peter  and  some  other  disciples  were  the  first 
to  see  the  Lord  in  Galilee  as  they  were  fishing  [it  is, 
moreover,  probable  that  the  stories  of  two  appearances 
are  intertwined  in  St  John  xxi.]. 

6.  The  gospel  of  St  Matthew  [without  xxviii.  9, 10]  : 
the  eleven  disciples  were  the  first  to  see  the  Lord  on  a 
mountain  in  Galilee,  after  the  third  day. 


1  Cf.  my  treatise,  "Ein  jiingst  entdeckter  Auferstehungsbericht, " 
in  Der  Festschrift  fur  B.  Weiss  (1897). 

2  The  efforts  which  have  been  repeated  lately  by  Lepsius  and  Resch, 
jun.,  to  discover  "Galilee"  in  Judaea,  near  to  Jerusalem,  have  not 
convinced  me. 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  159 

7.  The  gospel  of  St  John :  St  Mary  Magdalene  was 
the  first  to  see  the  Lord,  beside  the  empty  tomb,  on 
the  morning  of  the  third  day. 

8.  The  spurious  conclusion  of  St  Mark  (Aristion  ?)  : 
the  same  as  St  John. 

9.  The  interpolation  in  St  Matthew  (xxviii.  9  f.) : 
St  Mary  Magdalene  and  another  Mary  were  the  first  to 
see  the  Lord  by  the  way  on  their  return  from  the  empty 
tomb. 

10.  Didasc.  Apost. :  Levi  was  the  first  among  the 
disciples  to  see  the  Lord  after  He  had  appeared  to  St 
Mary  Magdalene  and  the  other  Mary. 

11.  Hippol.,  Comm.  in  Cardie. :  Mary  and  Martha 
were  the  first  to  see  the  Lord. 

12.  Tatian  (Ephraem.  Diodor.) :  St  Mary  the  mother 
of  our  Lord  was  the  first  to  see  Him. 

13.  The  gospel  of  St  Luke :  two  disciples  (Cleopas 
and  another  unnamed)  were  the  first  to  see  the  Lord  at 
Emmaus,  near  Jerusalem,  towards  the  evening  of  the 
third  day. 

14.  The  gospel  of  the  Hebrews  :  James  the  Just  was 
the  first  to  see  the  Lord  on  the  morning  of  the  third 
day. 

Though  these  opposing  witnesses  are  by  no  means 
of  equal  weight,  yet  even  those  of  later  date  testify 
that  this  vacillation  in  testimony  goes  back  to  the 
earliest  period.  We  may  evidently  conclude  therefrom 
that  the  question  soon  became  a  purely  party  question, 
and  that  even  the  Primitive  Church  of  Jerusalem  very 
soon  lost  a  certain  and  uncontro verted  tradition  both  in 
regard  to  the  person  who  was  the  first  to  see  the  Lord 


160  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

as  well  as  in  regard  to  the  locality  of  the  first  appear- 
ance. Appearances  occurred  very  soon  both  in  and 
near  Jerusalem,  as  well  as  in  Galilee,  and — the  fact  of 
the  empty  grave  being  assumed — it  almost  necessarily 
followed  that  a  legend  should  grow  up  telling  that  the 
finding  of  the  empty  tomb  was  at  once  accompanied  by 
an  appearance,  especially  if,  as  is  very  probable,  appear- 
ances at  the  empty  tomb  actually  took  place  very 
shortly  afterwards.  The  factor  of  the  empty  tomb 
complicated  and  disturbed  the  tradition  of  the  appear- 
ances. The  view  that  variation  in  the  accounts  did 
not  arise  until  after  60  or  70  a.d.  is  altogether 
improbable;  for  if  the  statement,  "Jesus  first  of  all 
appeared  to  Peter  in  Galilee,"  had  continued  to  be  an 
unquestioned  article  of  faith  during  the  first  thirty 
years,  it  is  quite  incomprehensible  how  doubt  could 
have  then  arisen,  i.e.  how  another  account  could  have 
come  into  existence.  However,  for  the  question  which 
now  concerns  us,  it  is  sufficient  to  establish  this  one  point, 
namely,  that  though  St  Luke  is  found  to  contradict  St 
Mark  and  St  Matthew  in  his  stories  of  the  Resurrection, 
we  may  not  therefore  conclude  that  he  must  have 
written  after  60  or  70  a.d.  Again,  the  tradition  as  to 
the  history  of  the  Crucifixion  and  Resurrection,  which 
St  Luke  shares  in  common  with  the  fourth  gospel, 
appears  with  characteristic  variation  in  the  two 
evangelists ;  hence  it  must  itself  belong  to  a  much 
earlier  period.  But  even  in  the  original  form  of  this 
tradition  the  scene  of  the  appearances  had  been  already 
transferred  to  Jerusalem. 

We  have  still  to  consider  the  difference  between  the 


PRIMITIVE  LEGENDS  OF  CHRISTENDOM  161 

first  and  second  works  of  St  Luke  in  what  they  record 
concerning  the  abode  of  our  Lord  on  earth  after  His 
Resurrection  and  concerning  the  Ascension.  Even  the 
gospel  pictures  our  Lord  taking  a  solemn  farewell  from 
the  disciples,  and  it  places  the  scene  at  Bethany ;  the 
Acts,  however,  declares  that  the  solemn  farewell  took 
place  after  forty  days  during  which  the  disciples  were 
systematically  instructed  by  our  Lord,  that  the  scene 
of  the  farewell  was  the  Mount  of  Olives,  and  that  our 
Lord  ascended  into  Heaven  before  the  eyes  of  the 
disciples.  What  is  distinctly  new  and  interesting  in 
this  tradition  is  not  the  corporal  Ascension,  together 
with  the  accompanying  angels — a  story  like  this  could 
have  easily  taken  form  as  soon  as  the  Twelve  were 
scattered  abroad, — but  the  forty  days1  converse  of  our 
Lord  with  His  disciples.  We  may  declare,  without  a 
shadow  of  a  doubt,  that  not  only  St  Paul,  St  Mark,  and 
St  Matthew,  but  even  St  Luke  himself  in  his  gospel,  as 
well  as  St  John,  exclude  such  a  story.  On  the  other 
hand,  we  must  not  fail  to  notice  that  the  beginnings  of 
such  a  tradition  are  to  be  found  only  in  St  Luke,  namely, 
in  the  story  of  the  Journey  to  Emmaus  (especially 
xxiv.  27-32)  and  in  a  slighter  degree  in  St  John  xx.,  xxi. 
The  Acts  gives  us  no  stories  of  events  happening  during 
this  time  of  converse.  It  is  therefore  evident  that  the 
period  of  time  itself  is  alone  significant.  This  must  be 
due  to  some  speculation  of  Messianic  and  apocalyptic 
character,  and  is  accordingly  a  theologumenon  which 
could  be  combined  with  any  historical  reminiscence. 
Probably  at  first  it  had  nothing  to  do  with  the  converse 
of  the  Risen  Christ  with  His  disciples,  but  was  thought 

11 


162  THE  ACTS  AND  THE  SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS 

of  as  a  period  of  waiting  and  preparation  before  the 
investure  with  the  Heavenly  Messiahship ;  the  number 
"  40 "  points  to  such  an  explanation.  Hence  the  idea 
itself  may  well  be  primitive.  Our  conclusion  from  this 
survey  is  therefore : 1  that  we  have  found  nothing  to 
upset  the  verdict,  to  which  we  have  been  led  by  critical 
investigation  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  that  the 
second  and  third  gospels,  as  well  as  the  Acts,  were 
composed  while  St  Paul  was  still  alive,  and  that  the 
first  gospel  came  into  being  only  a  few  years  later. 

1  I  am  well  aware  that  the  discussion  in  the  last  pages  is  of  a  very 
summary  character ;  but  it  gives  the  quintessence  of  a  ^orough 
investigation.  I  was  able  to  be  brief  because,  apart  from  the  story  of 
the  Infancy  of  our  Lord,  the  subjects  discussed  have  not  been  the 
object  of  systematic  criticism  and  hypothesis  of  a  character  hostile  to 
my  results.  At  least,  I  know  of  no  treatise  which  expressly  bases 
conclusive  arguments  for  bringing  the  synoptic  gospels  down  to  the  end 
of  the  first  century  upon  definite  narratives  which  they  contain. 
People  are  satisfied  with  showing  that  these  gospels  presuppose  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  that  the  standpoint  of  their  authors  is  "  post- 
Pauline,"  and  that  they  show  the  traces  of  subsequent  experiences  of 
the  Church ;  but  whether  these  subsequent  experiences  belong  to  the 
period  between  30  and  60  A.D.,  or  to  some  later  time — this  is  a  question 
which  is  almost  never  raised,  and  for  good  reasons,  because  definite 
evidence  upon  which  to  decide  it  is  wanting. 


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Cheyne,  M.A.,  D.D.  ;  the  late  Rev.  A.  B.  Bruce,  D.D.,  late  Professor 
of  Apologetics,  Free  Church  College,  Glasgow  ;  Rev.  Professor  Allan 
Menzies,  D.D.,  St  Andrews;  Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  M.A.,  LL.D.  ; 
and  Rev.  James  Moffatt,  B.D.,  D.D.,  St  Andrews. 

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Vol.  XXX. 
THE  TRUTH  OF  RELIGION.     By  Dr.  Rudolf  Eucken,  Pro- 
fessor of  Theology  in  Jena.     Now  first  translated  from  the  second 
and  revised  edition  by  Rev.  W.  Tudor  Jones,  Ph.D.,  with  a  special 
preface  by  the  Author.     Cloth.     1 2s.  6d.  net. 

Vols.  XXVIII.  and  XXIX. 
THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  IN  THE  LIGHT  OF  THE 
EAST.  By  Alfred  Jeremias,  Professor  of  Old  Testament  History 
in  the  University  of  Leipzig.  The  translation  will  be  edited  by 
Professor  C.  H.  W.  Johns  of  Cambridge.  The  work  will  be 
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ETHICS  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  LIFE.     By  Theodor  Haering, 
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14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


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THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  LIBRARY-Continued. 

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PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANITY,  Vol.  I.  :  Its  Writings  and 
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Professor  of  Practical  Theology  in  the  University  of  Berlin. 

Vol.  XXIII.     Ready,     ios.  6d.  net. 

THE  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  CANONICAL  BOOKS 
OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  By  Carl  Cornill,  Professor 
of  Old  Testament  Theology  at  the  University  of  Breslau. 

Vol.  XXIV.     Ready,     ios.  6d.  net. 

HISTORY  OF  THE  CHURCH.  By  Hans  von  Schubert,  Pro- 
fessor of  Church  History  at  Kiel.  Translated  from  the  Second 
German  Edition.  By  arrangement  with  the  author,  an  Additional 
Chapter  has  been  added  on  "Religious  Movements  in  England  in 
the  Nineteenth  Century,"  by  Miss  Alice  Gardner,  Lecturer  and 
Associate  of  Newnham  College,  Cambridge. 

The  following  Volumes  are  published  at  ios.  6d.  per  Volume, 
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Vol.  XXI. 

ST.  PAUL:  The  Man  and  his  Work.  By  Prof.  H.  Weinel  of 
the  University  of  Jena.  Translated  by  Rev.  G.  A.  Bienemann, 
M.A.     Edited  by  Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  M.A.,  LL.D. 

"  Prof.  Weinel  may  be  described  as  the  Dean  Farrar  of  Germany ;  the  work 
is  quite  equal  to  Dean  Farrar's  work  on  the  same  subject-  In  some  respects  it 
is  better." — Daily  News. 

Vols.  XIX.  and  XX. 

THE  MISSION  AND  EXPANSION  OF  CHRISTIANITY 
IN  THE  FIRST  THREE  CENTURIES.  By  Adolf 
Harnack,  Ordinary  Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  University, 
and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  the  Sciences,  Berlin. 
Second,  revised  and  much  enlarged  edition,  2$s.  net. 

Vol.  XVIII. 

CHRISTIAN  LIFE  IN  THE  PRIMITIVE  CHURCH.    By 

Ernst  von  Dobschutz,  D.  D. ,  Professor  of  New  Testament  Theology 
in  the  University  of  Strassburg.  Translated  by  Rev.  G.  Bremner, 
and  edited  by  the  Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.  D. 

"  It  is  only  in  the  very  best  English  work  that  we  meet  with  the  scientific 
thoroughness  and  all-round  competency  of  which  this  volume  is  a  good  speci- 
men ;  while  such  splendid  historical  veracity  and  outspokenness  would  hardly 
be  possible  in  the  present  or  would-be  holder  of  an  English  theological  chair." 
— Dr  Rashdall  in  The  Speaker. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  LIBRARY-Continued. 
Vol.  XVI. 

THE  RELIGIONS  OF  AUTHORITY  AND  THE  RE- 
LIGION OF  THE  SPIRIT.  By  the  late  Auguste  Sabatier, 
Professor  of  the  University  of  Paris,  Dean  of  the  Protestant  Theo- 
logical Faculty.     New  impression.     Demy  8vo,  cloth,     ios.  6d. 

"Without  any  exaggeration,  this  is  to  be  described  as  a  great  book,  the 
finest  legacy  of  the  author  to  the  Protestant  Church  of  France  and  to  the  theo- 
logical thought  of  the  age.  " — Glasgow  Herald. 

Vols.  XV.  and  XVII. 

THE  BEGINNINGS  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  By  Paul  Wernle, 
Professor  Extraordinary  of  Modern  Church  History  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Basel.  Revised  by  the  Author,  and  translated  by  the 
Rev.  G.  A.  Bienemann,  M.A.,  and  edited,  with  an  Introduction, 
by  the  Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.  Demy  8vo.  I  or.  6d.  per 
volume. 

Vol.  I.  The  Rise  of  the  Religion. 

Vol.  II.  The  Development  of  the  Church. 

Dr.  Marcus  Dods  in  the  British  Weekly — "  We  cannot  recall  any  work  by 
a  foreign  theologian  which  is  likely  to  have  a  more  powerful  influence  on  the 
thought  of  this  country  than  Wernle's  Beginnings  of  Christianity.  It  is  well 
written  and  well  translated  ;  it  is  earnest,  clear,  and  persuasive,  and  above  all 
it  is  well  adapted  to  catch  the  large  class  of  thinking  men  who  are  at  present 
seeking  some  non-miraculous  explanation  of  Christianity." 


The  Earlier  Works  included  in  the  Library  are  : — 

HISTORY  OF  DOGMA.  By  Adolf  Harnack,  Berlin.  Translated 
from  the  Third  German  Edition.  Edited  by  the  Rev.  Prof.  A. 
B.  Bruce,  D.D.  7  vols.  (New  Series,  Vols.  II.,  VII.,  VIII.,  IX., 
X.,  XL,  XII.)  8vo,  cloth,  each  ios.  6d.  ;  half-leather,  suitable  for 
presentation,  12s.  6d. 

ABBREVIATED  LIST  OF  CONTENTS :— Vol.  I.:  Intro- 
ductory Division  : — I.  Prolegomena  to  the  Study  of  the  History 
of  Dogma.  II.  The  Presuppositions  of  the  History  of  Dogma. 
Division  I. — The  Genesis  of  Ecclesiastical  Dogma,  or  the 
Genesis  of  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Dogmatic  Theology,  and  the 
first  Scientific  Ecclesiastical  System  of  Doctrine.  Book  I.  : — 
The  Preparation.  Vol.  II. :  Division  I.  Book  II.  -.—  The 
Laying  of  the  Foundation. — I.  Historical  Survey. — /.  Fixing  and 
gradual  Secularising  of  Christianity  as  a  Church. — //.  Fixing  and 
gradual  Hellenising  of  Christianity  as  a  System  of  Doctrine.  Vol. 
III.  :  Division  I.  Book  II.:— The  Laying  of  the  Foundation— 
continued.  Division  II. — The  Development  of  Ecclesiastical 
Dogma.  BOOK  I.  : — The  History  of  the  Development  of  Dogma  as 
the  Doctrine  of  the  God-man  on  the  basis  of  Natural  Theology. 
A.  Presuppositions  of  Doctrine  of  Redemption  or  Natural  Theology. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS. 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  LIBRARY— Continued. 

B.  The  Doctrine  of  Redemption  in  the  Person  of  the  God-man  in 
its  historical  development.  Vol.  IV. :  Division  II.  Book  I.  : — 
The  History  of  the  Development  of  Dogma  as  the  Doctrine  of  the 
God-man  on  the  basis  of  Natural  Theology — continued.  Vol.  V. : 
Division  II.  Book  II.  : — Expansion  and  Remodelling  of  Dogma 
into  a  Doctrine  of  Sin,  Grace,  and  Means  of  Grace  on  the  basis  of 
the  Church.  Vol.  VI.  :  Division  II.  Book  II.  -.—Expansion 
and  Remodelling  of  Dogma  into  a  Doctrine  of  Sin,  Grace,  and 
Means  of  Grace  on  the  basis  of  the  Church — continued.  Vol.  VII. : 
Division  II.  Book  III.  : — The  Threefold  Issue  of  the  History  of 
Dogma. — Full  Index. 

"No  work  on  Church  history  in  recent  times  has  had  the  influence  of  Prof. 
Harnack's  History  of  Dogma." — Times. 

"A  book  which  is  admitted  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  theological  works 
of  the  time." — Daily  News. 

WHAT  IS  CHRISTIANITY?  Sixteen  Lectures  delivered  in 
the  University  of  Berlin  during  the  Winter  Term,  1899-1900.  By 
Adolf  Harnack.  Translated  by  Thomas  Bailey  Saunders.  (New 
Series,  Vol.  XIV.)  Demy  8vo,  cloth,  ior.  6d.  ;  can  only  be 
supplied  when  complete  set  of  the  New  Series  is  ordered. 

Prof.  W.  Sanday  of  Oxford,  in  the  examination  of  the  work,  says  : — "  I  may 
assume  that  Harnack's  book,  which  has  attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention  in  this 
country  as  in  Germany,  is  by  this  time  well  known,  and  that  its  merits  are 
recognised — its  fresh  and  vivid  descriptions,  its  breadth  of  view  and  skilful 
selection  of  points,  its  frankness,  its  genuine  enthusiasm,  its  persistent  effort  to 
get  at  the  living  realities  of  religion." 

"  Seldom  has  a  treatise  of  the  sort  been  at  once  so  suggestive  and  so 
stimulating.  Seldom  have  the  results  of  so  much  learning  been  brought  to  bear 
on  the  religious  problems  which  address  themselves  to  the  modern  mind." — 
Pilot. 

"In  many  respects  this  is  the  most  notable  work  of  Prof.  Harnack.  .  .  . 
These  lectures  are  most  remarkable,  both  for  the  historical  insight  they  display 
and  for  their  elevation  of  tone  and  purpose." — Literature. 

THE  COMMUNION  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN  WITH  GOD  : 
A  Discussion  in  Agreement  with  the  View  of  Luther.  By 
W.  Herrmann,  Dr.  Theol.,  Professor  of  Dogmatic  Theology  in  the 
University  of  Marburg.  Translated  from  the  Second  thoroughly 
revised  Edition,  with  Special  Annotations  by  the  Author,  by  J. 
Sandys  Stanyon,  M.A.  (New  Series,  Vol.  IV.)  8vo,  cloth. 
ioj.  6d. 

"  It  will  be  seen  from  what  has  been  said  that  this  book  is  a  very  important 
one.  .  .  .  The  translation  is  also  exceedingly  well  done." — Critical  Review. 

"  We  trust  the  book  will  be  widely  read,  and  should  advise  those  who  read  it 
to  do  so  twice." — Primitive  Methodist  Quarterly. 

"Instinct  with  genuine  religious  feeling;  .  .  .  exceedingly  interesting  and 
suggestive." — Glasgow  Herald. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Co  vent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  LIBRARY-Continued. 

A  HISTORY  OF  THE  HEBREWS.  By  R.  Kittel,  Ordinary 
Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Breslau.  In  2  vols. 
(New  Series,  Vols.  III.  and  VI.)  8vo,  cloth.  Each  volume, 
10s.  6d. 

Vol.  I.  Sources  of  Information  and  History  of  the  Period 
up  to  the  Death  of  Joshua.  Translated  by  John  Taylor, 
D.Lit.,  M.A. 

Vol.  II.  Sources  of  Information  and  History  of  the 
Period  down  to  the  Babylonian  Exile.  Translated  by  Hope 
W.  Hogg,  B.D.,  and  E.  B.  Speirs,  D.D. 

"  It  is  a  sober  and  earnest  reconstruction,  for  which  every  earnest  student  of 
the  Old  Testament  should  be  grateful." — Christian  World. 

"  It  will  be  a  happy  day  for  pulpit  and  pew  when  a  well-thumbed  copy  of 
the  History  of  the  Hebrews  is  to  be  found  m  every  manse  and  parsonage." — 
Literary  World. 

"  It  is  a  work  which  cannot  fail  to  attract  the  attention  of  thoughtful  people 
in  this  country." — Pall  Mall  Gazette. 

AN  INTRODUCTION  TO  THE  TEXTUAL  CRITICISM 
OF  THE  GREEK  NEW  TESTAMENT.  By  Professor 
Eberhard  Nestle,  of  Maulbronn.  Translated  from  the  Second 
Edition,  with  Corrections  and  Additions  by  the  Author,  by  William 
Edie,  B.D.,  and  edited,  with  a  Preface,  by  Allan  Menzies,  D.D., 
Professor  of  Divinity  and  Biblical  Criticism  in  the  University  of  St. 
Andrews.  (New  Series,  Vol.  XIII.)  With  eleven  reproductions 
of  Texts.     Demy  8vo,  10s.  6d.  ;  half-leather,  12s.  6d. 

"We  have  no  living  scholar  more  capable  of  accomplishing  the  fascinating 
task  of  preparing  a  complete  introduction  on  the  new  and  acknowledged  prin- 
ciples than  Prof.  Nestle.  This  book  will  stand  the  most  rigorous  scrutiny ;  it 
will  surpass  the  highest  expectation." — Expository  Times. 

"Nothing  could  be  better  than  Dr.  Nestle's  account  of  the  materials  which 
New  Testament  textual  criticism  has  to  deal  with." — Spectator. 

"We  know  of  no  book  of  its  size  which  can  be  recommended  more  cordially 
to  the  student,  alike  for  general  interest  and  for  the  clearness  of  its  arrangement. 
.  .  .  In  smoothness  of  rendering,  the  translation  is  one  of  the  best  we  have 
come  across  for  a  considerable  time. " — Manchester  Guardian. 

THE  APOSTOLIC  AGE.  By  Prof.  Carl  von  Weizsacker.  Trans- 
lated by  James  Millar,  B.D.  2  vols.  (New  Series,  Vols.  I.  and 
V.)     Demy  8vo,  cloth.     Each  \os.  6d. 

"  Weizsacker  is  an  authority  of  the  very  first  rank.  The  present  work  marks 
an  epoch  in  New  Testament  criticism.  The  English  reader  is  fortunate  in 
having  a  masterpiece  of  this  kind  rendered  accessible  to  him." — Expository 
Times. 

" .  .  .  No  student  of  theology  or  of  the  early  history  of  Christianity  can 
afford  to  leave  Weizsacker's  great  book  unread." — Manchester  Guardian. 

"  In  every  direction  in  this  work  we  find  the  mark  of  the  independent 
thinker  and  investigator  .  .  .  this  remarkable  volume  .  .  .  this  able  and 
learned  work.     .     .     ." — Christian  World. 

"  The  book  itself  .  .  .  is  of  great  interest,  and  the  work  of  the  translation 
has  been  done  in  a  most  satisfactory  way." — Critical  Review. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  7 

THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION   FUND  LIBRARY. 

©ID  Secies. 

Uniform  Price  per  Volume,  6s. 

BAUR  (F.  C).  CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  THE  FIRST 
THREE  CENTURIES.  Translated  from  the  Third  German 
Edition.    Edited  by  Rev.  Allan  Menzies.     2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     I2s. 

PAUL,  THE  APOSTLE  OF  JESUS  CHRIST,  HIS 

LIFE  AND  WORK,  HIS  EPISTLES  AND  DOC- 
TRINE. A  Contribution  to  a  Critical  History  of  Primitive 
Christianity.  Edited  by  Rev.  Allan  Menzies.  2nd  Edition. 
2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     I2s. 

BLEEK  (F.).   LECTURES  ON  THE  APOCALYPSE. 

Translated.  Edited  by  the  Rev.  Dr.  S.  Davidson.  8vo,  cloth. 
6s. 

EWALD'S  (Dr.  H.)  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  PRO- 
PHETS OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  Translated  by 
the  Rev.  J.  F.  Smith.  [Vol.  I.  General  Introduction,  Yoel,  Amos, 
Hosea,  and  Zakharya  9-1 1.  Vol.  II.  Yesaya,  Obadya,  and  Mikah. 
Vol.  III.  Nahum,  Ssephanya,  Habaqquq,  Zakharya,  Yeremya. 
Vol.  IV.  Hezekiel,  Yesaya  xl.-lxvi.  Vol.  V.  Haggai,  Zakharya, 
Malaki,  Jona,  Baruc,  Daniel,  Appendix  and  Index.]  5  vols.  8vo, 
cloth.     30J. 

COMMENTARY    ON   THE  PSALMS.      Translated  by 

the  Rev.  E.  Johnson,  M.A.     2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     12s. 

COMMENTARY    ON    THE    BOOK    OF   JOB,    with 

Translation.  Translated  from  the  German  by  the  Rev.  J. 
Frederick  Smith.     8vo,  cloth.     6s. 

HAUSRATH  (Prof.  A.).  HISTORY  OF  THE  NEW 
TESTAMENT  TIMES.  The  Time  of  Jesus.  Translated 
by  the  Revs.  C.  T.  Poynting  and  P.  Quenzer.  2  vols.  8vo,  cloth. 
1 2  s. 

The  second  portion  of  this  work,  "The  Times  of  the  Apostles," 
was  issued  apart  from  the  Library,  but  in  uniform  volumes  ;  see 
p.  18. 

KEIM'S  HISTORY  OF  JESUS  OF  NAZARA :  Considered 
in  its  connection  with  the  National  Life  of  Israel,  and 
related  in  detail.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Arthur  Ransom 
and  the  Rev.  E.  M.  Geldart.  [Vol.  I.  Second  Edition.  Intro- 
duction, Survey  of  Sources,  Sacred  and  Political  Groundwork. 
Religious  Groundwork.  Vol.  II.  The  Sacred  Youth,  Self-recog- 
nition, Decision.     Vol.  III.   The  First  Preaching,  the  Works  of 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THEOLOGICAL  TRANSLATION  FUND  LIBRARY-Continued. 

Jesus,  the  Disciples,  and  Apostolic  Mission.  Vol.  IV.  Conflicts 
and  Disillusions,  Strengthened  Self-confidence,  Last  Efforts  in 
Galilee,  Signs  of  the  Approaching  Fall,  Recognition  of  the  Messiah. 
Vol.  V.  The  Messianic  Progress  to  Jerusalem,  the  Entry  into 
Jerusalem,  the  Decisive  Struggle,  the  Farewell,  the  Last  Supper. 
Vol.  VI.  The  Messianic  Death  at  Jerusalem.  Arrest  and  Pseudo- 
Trial,  the  Death  on  the  Cross,  Burial  and  Resurrection,  the 
Messiah's  Place  in  History,  Indices.]  Complete  in  6  vols. 
8vo.     36J. 

(Vol.  I.  only  to  be  had  when  a  complete  set  of  the  work  is 
ordered.) 

KUENEN  (Dr.  A).  THE  RELIGION  OF  ISRAEL  TO 
THE   FALL  OF  THE  JEWISH   STATE.      By  Dr.  A. 

Kuenen,  Professor  of  Theology  at  the  University,  Leiden.  Trans- 
lated from  the  Dutch  by  A.  H.  May.     3  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     1 8.T. 

PFLEIDERER  (O.).  PAULINISM  :  A  Contribution  to  the 
History  of  Primitive  Christian  Theology.  Translated  by  E. 
Peters.     2nd  Edition.     2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     12s. 

PHILOSOPHY  OF  RELIGION  ON  THE  BASIS  OF 

ITS  HISTORY.  (Vols.  I.  II.  History  of  the  Philosophy  of 
Religion  from  Spinoza  to  the  Present  Day  ;  Vols.  III.  IV.  Genetic- 
Speculative  Philosophy  of  Religion.)  Translated  by  Prof.  Allan 
Menzies  and  the  Rev.  Alex.  Stewart.     4  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     24J. 

REVILLE  (Dr.  A).  PROLEGOMENA  OF  THE  HIS- 
TORY OF  RELIGIONS.  With  an  Introduction  by  Prof. 
F.  Max  Miiller.     8vo,  cloth.     6s. 

PROTESTANT  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  NEW  TES- 
TAMENT. With  General  and  Special  Introductions.  Edited 
by  Profs.  P.  W.  Schmidt  and  F.  von  Holzendorff.  Translated 
from  the  Third  German  Edition  by  the  Rev.  F.  H.  Jones,  B.A. 
3  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     18s. 

SCHRADER  (Prof.  E.).  THE  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIP- 
TIONS AND  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  Translated 
from  the  Second  Enlarged  Edition,  with  Additions  by  the  Author, 
and  an  Introduction  by  the  Rev.  Owen  C.  Whitehouse,  M.A. 
2  vols.  (Vol.  I.  not  sold  separately.)  With  a  Map.  8vo,  cloth. 
1 2  j. 

ZELLER  (Dr.  E).  THE  CONTENTS  AND  ORIGIN  OF 
THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES  CRITICALLY 
INVESTIGATED.  Preceded  by  Dr.  Fr.  Overbeck's  Intro- 
duction to  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles  from  De  Wette's  Handbook. 
Translated  by  Joseph  Dare.     2  vols.  8vo,  cloth.     12s. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS. 


THE    CROWN    THEOLOGICAL    LIBRARY. 

The  volumes  are  uniform  in  size  [crown  octavo)  and  binding,  but  the 
price  varies  according  to  the  size  and  importance  of  the  work. 

Vol.  I.  BABEL  AND  BIBLE.  By  Dr.  Friedrich  Delitzsch,  Pro- 
fessor of  Assyriology  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  Authorised 
Translation.  Edited,  with  an  Introduction,  by  Rev.  C.  H.  W. 
Johns.     Crown  8vo,  with  77  illustrations,  cloth.     4s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  II.  THE  VIRGIN  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST:  An  Historical 

and  Critical  Essay.  By  Paul  Lobstein,  Professor  of  Dogmatics 
in  the  University  of  Strassburg.  Translated  by  Victor  Leuliette, 
A.K.C.,  B.-es-L.,  Paris.  Edited,  with  an  Introduction,  by  Rev. 
W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.     Crown  8vo.     2s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  III.  MY  STRUGGLE  FOR  LIGHT :  Confessions  of  a 
Preacher.  By  R.  Wimmer,  Pastor  of  Weisweil-am-Rhein  in 
Baden.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     35-.  net. 

Vol.  IV.  LIBERAL  CHRISTIANITY:  Its  Origin,  Nature,  and 
Mission.  By  Jean  Reville,  Professeur  adjoint  a  la  Faculte  de 
Theologie  Protestante  de  l'Universite  de  Paris.  Translated  and 
edited  by  Victor  Leuliette,  A.K.C.,  B.-es-L.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth.     3s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  V.  WHAT  IS  CHRISTIANITY?  By  Adolf  Harnack, 
Professor  of  Church  History  in  the  University,  Berlin.  Translated 
by  Thomas  Bailey  Saunders.  Third  and  Revised  Edition.  Crown 
8vo.     4-r.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  VI.  FAITH  AND  MORALS.  By  W.  Herrmann,  Professor 
of  Systematic  Theology  at  the  University  of  Marburg;  Author  of 
"The  Communion  of  the  Christian  with  God."  New  edition. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth.     4s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  VII.  EARLY  HEBREW  STORY.  A  Study  of  the  Origin, 
the  Value,  and  the  Historical  Background  of  the  Legends  of  Israel. 
By  John  P.  Peters,  D.D.,  Rector  of  St.  Michael's  Church,  New 
York  ;  author  of  "  Nippur,  or  Explorations  and  Adventures  on  the 
Euphrates."     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     45.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  VIII.  BIBLE  PROBLEMS  AND  THE  NEW 
MATERIAL  FOR  THEIR  SOLUTION.  A  Plea  for 
Thoroughness  of  Investigation,  addressed  to  Churchmen 
and  Scholars.  By  the  Rev.  T.  K.  Cheyne,  D.Litt.,  D.D., 
Fellow  of  the  British  Academy  ;  Oriel  Professor  of  Interpretation 
in  the  University  of  Oxford,  and  Canon  of  Rochester.  Crown 
8vo.     4s.  6d.  net. 

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WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THE  CROWN  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY-Continued. 

Vol.  IX.  THE  DOCTRINE  OF  THE  ATONEMENT  AND 
ITS  HISTORICAL  EVOLUTION;  and  RELIGION 
AND  MODERN  CULTURE.  By  the  late  Auguste  Sabatier, 
Professor  in  the  University  of  Paris.  Translated  by  Victor  Leuliette, 
A.K.C.,  B.-es-L.     Crown  8vo.     4s.  net. 

Vol.  X.  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CONCEPTION  OF 
CHRIST:  Its  Value  and  Significance  in  the  History  of 
Religion.  By  Otto  Pfieiderer,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Practical 
Theology  in  the  University,  Berlin.     Crown  8vo.     3.5-.  net. 

Vol.  XI.  THE  CHILD  AND  RELIGION.  Eleven  Essays.  By 
Prof.  Henry  Jones,  M.A.,  LL.D.,  University  of  Glasgow  ;  C.  F.  G. 
Masterman,  M.A.  ;  Prof.  George  T.  Ladd,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Uni- 
versity of  Yale;  Rev.  F.  R.  Tennant,  M.A. ,  B.Sc,  Hulsean 
Lecturer;  Rev.  J.  Cynddylan  Jones,  D.D.  ;  Rev.  Canon  Hensley 
Henson,  M.A.  ;  Rev.  Robert  F.  Horton,  M.A.,  D.D.  ;  Rev.  G. 
Hill,  M.A.,  D.D.  ;  Rev.  J.  J.  Thornton  ;  Rev.  Rabbi  A.  A. 
Green;  Prof.  Joseph  Agar  Beet,  D.D.  Edited  by  Thomas 
Stephens,  B.A.     Crown  8vo.     5.?,  net. 

"  No  fresher  and  more  instructive  book  on  this  question  has  been  issued  for 
years,  and  the  study  of  its  pages  will  often  prove  a  godsend  to  many  perplexed 
minds  in  the  church  and  in  the  Christian  home." — British  Weekly. 

Vol.  XII.  THE  EVOLUTION  OF  RELIGION :  An  Anthro- 
pological Study.  By  L.  R.  Farnell,  D.  Litt. ,  Fellow  and  Tutor 
of  Exeter  College,  Oxford ;  University  Lecturer  in  Classical 
Archaeology,  etc.,  etc.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     45.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XIII.  THE  BOOKS  OF  THE  NEW  TESTAMENT. 

By  H.  von  Soden,  D.D.,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University 
of  Berlin.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Wilkinson,  and  edited  by 
Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     4s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XIV.  JESUS.  By  Wilhelm  Bousset,  Professor  of  Theology  in 
Gdttingen.  Translated  by  Janet  Penrose  Trevelyan,  and  edited  by 
Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.  D.     Crown  8vo.     3.?.  6d.  net. 

"  It  is  true  the  writers,  von  Soden  and  Bousset,  have  in  the  course  of  their 
papers  said  things  that  I  regard  as  nothing  less  than  admirable.  I  very 
much  doubt  whether  we  have  anything  so  admirable  in  English." — Rev.  Dr. 
Sanday  in  the  Guardian. 

Vol.  XV.  THE  COMMUNION  OF  THE  CHRISTIAN 
WITH  GOD.  By  Prof.  Wilhelm  Herrmann.  Translated  from 
the  new  German  Edition  by  Rev.  J.  S.  Stanyon,  M.A.,  and  Rev. 
R.  W.  Stewart,  B.D.,  B.Sc.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     4s.  6d.  net. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  n 

THE  CROWN  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY— Continued. 

Vol.  XVI.  HEBREW  RELIGION  TO  THE  ESTABLISH- 
MENT OF  JUDAISM  UNDER  EZRA.  By  W.  E.  Addis, 
M.A     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     45-.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XVII.  NATURALISM  AND  RELIGION.  By  Rudolf 
Otto,  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  University  of  Gottingen.  Trans- 
lated by  J.  Arthur  Thomson,  Professor  of  Natural  History  in  the 
University  of  Aberdeen,  and  Margaret  R.  Thomson.  Edited 
with  an  Introduction  by  Rev.  W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.  Crown 
8vo.     $s.  net. 

"...  A  valuable  survey,  and  a  critical  estimate  of  scientific  theory  and 
kindred  ideas  as  they  concern  the  religious  view  of  the  world.  ...  It  is  well 
written,  clear,  and  even  eloquent. "  —Expository  Times. 

Vol.  XVIII.  ESSAYS  ON  THE  SOCIAL  GOSPEL.  By  Pro- 
fessor Adolf  Harnack,  of  Berlin,  and  Professor  W.  Herrmann,  of 
Marburg.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     4s.  net. 

Vol.  XIX.  THE  RELIGION  OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT: 
Its  Place  among  the  Religions  of  the  Nearer  East.  By 
Karl  Marti,  Professor  of  Old  Testament  Exegesis,  Bern.  Crown 
8vo,  cloth.     4s.  net. 

In  a  leading  review  The  Spectator  says : — "  It  is  a  valuable  contribution 
to  a  great  theme  by  one  who  has  devoted  his  life  to  its  study.  Not  only  the 
general  reader,  for  whom  it  is  specially  intended,  but  the  theologian  will  learn 
not  a  little  from  its  pages." 

Vol.  XX  LUKE,  THE  PHYSICIAN.  By  Adolf  Harnack,  D.D. 
Translated  by  the  Rev.  J.  R.  Wilkinson,  M.A.  Being  Vol.  I. 
of  Dr.  Harnack's  New  Testament  Studies.  Crown  8vo,  cloth. 
5-r.  net. 

"  What  is  new  and  interesting  and  valuable  is  the  ratiocination,  the  theorising, 
and  the  personal  point  of  view  in  the  book  under  review.  We  study  it  to  under- 
stand Professor  Harnack,  not  to  understand  Luke  ;  and  the  study  is  well  worth 
the  time  and  work.  Personally,  I  feel  specially  interested  in  the  question  of 
Luke's  nationality.  On  this  the  author  has  some  admirable  and  suggestive 
pages." — Prof.  Sir  W.  M.  Ramsay  in  The  Expositor. 

Vol.  XXI.  THE  HISTORICAL  EVIDENCE  FOR  THE 
RESURRECTION  OF  JESUS  CHRIST.  By  Kirsopp 
Lake,  Professor  of  New  Testament  Exegesis  in  the  University  of 
Leiden,  Holland.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     4s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XXII.  THE  APOLOGETIC  OF  THE  NEW  TESTA- 
MENT. By  E.  F.  Scott,  M.A.,  author  of  "The  Fourth  Gospel : 
Its  Purpose  and  Theology."     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     4s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XXIII.  THE  SAYINGS  OF  JESUS.  By  Adolf  Harnack, 
D.D.  Being  Vol.  II.  of  Dr.  Harnack's  New  Testament  Studies. 
Crown  8vo,  cloth.     $s.  net. 

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WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


THE  CROWN  THEOLOGICAL  LIBRARY— Continued. 

Vol.  XXIV.  ANGLICAN  LIBERALISM.  By  Twelve  Church- 
men. Rev.  Hubert  Handley,  Prof.  F.  C.  Burkitt,  M.A.,  D.D., 
Rev.  J.  R.  Wilkinson,  M.A.,  Rev.  C.  R.  Shaw  Stewart,  M.A., 
Rev.  Hastings  Rashdall,  D.Litt.,  D.C.L.,  Prof.  Percy  Gardner, 
D.Litt.,  LL.D.,  Sir  C.  T.  Dyke  Acland,  Rev.  A.  J.  Carlyle,  M.A., 
Rev.  H.  G.  Woods,  D.D.,  Rev.  A.  A.  Caldecott,  D.Litt,  D.D.,  Rev. 
W.  D.  Morrison,  LL.D.,  Rev.  A.  L.  Lilley,  M.A.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth.     4s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XXV.  THE  FUNDAMENTAL  TRUTHS  OF  THE 
CHRISTIAN  RELIGION.  By  R.  Seeberg,  Professor  of 
Systematic  Theology  in  Berlin.  Sixteen  Lectures  delivered  before 
the  Students  of  all  Faculties  in  the  University  of  Berlin.  Crown 
8vo,  350  pp.     4*.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XXVI.  THE  ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES.  By  Adolf 
Harnack,  D.D.  Being  Vol.  III.  of  Dr  Harnack's  New  Testament 
Studies.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     5J.  net. 

Vol.  XXVII.  THE  LIFE  OF  THE  SPIRIT.  By  Rudolf 
Eucken,  Professor  of  Philosophy  in  Jena.  Second  Edition.  8vo, 
cloth.     4s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XXVIII.  MONASTICISM:  Its  Ideals  and  History;  and 
THE   CONFESSIONS   OF   ST.    AUGUSTINE.     Two 

Lectures  by  Adolf  Harnack,  D.D.  Translated  into  English  by 
E.  E.  Kellett,  M.A.,  and  F.  H.  Marseille,  Ph.D.  Crown  8vo, 
cloth.     3^.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XXIX.    MODERNITY  AND   THE   CHURCHES.     By 

Prof.  Percy  Gardner,  Litt.D.,  of  Oxford.  Crown  8vo,  cloth. 
4s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XXX.  THE  OLD  EGYPTIAN  FAITH.  By  Edouard 
Naville,  Hon.  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  Litt.D.,  Fellow  of  King's  College, 
London,  Professor  of  Egyptology  at  the  University  of  Geneva. 
Translated  by  Colin  Campbell,  M.A.,  D.D.  Illustrated.  4s.  6d.  net. 

Vol.  XXXI.  THE  CONSTITUTION  AND  LAW  OF  THE 
CHURCH  IN  THE  FIRST  TWO   CENTURIES.     By 

Adolf  Harnack,  D.D.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     $s.  net. 

Vol.  XXXII.  THE  SCIENTIFIC  STUDY  OF  THE  OLD 
TESTAMENT  :  Its  Principal  Results,  and  their  Bearing 
upon  Religious  Instruction.  By  Dr  Rudolf  Kittel,  Professor  at 
the  University  of  Leipzig.     Illustrated.     5^.  net. 

Vol.  XXXIII.  THE  DATE  OF  THE  ACTS  AND  OF  THE 
SYNOPTIC  GOSPELS.  Being  Vol.  IV.  of  Dr  Harnack's 
New  Testament  Studies.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     $s.  net. 

Vol.  XXXIV.  THE  RELIGIOUS  EXPERIENCE  OF  ST 
PAUL.     By  Prof.  Percy  Gardner.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     5J.  net. 

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CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  13 


THE  HIBBERT  LECTURES. 

Library   Edition,    demy  8vo,    ioj.    6d.    per  volume.     Cheap   Popular 
Edition,  3J.  6d.  per  volume. 

ALVIELLA  (Count  GOBLET  D').  LECTURES  ON  THE 
ORIGIN  AND  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  CONCEP- 
TION OF  GOD  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  ANTHRO- 
POLOGY AND  HISTORY.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  P.  H. 
Wicksteed.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1891.)  Cloth.  ioj.  6d.  Cheap 
Edition,  3J.  6d. 

BEARD  (Rev.  Dr.  C).  LECTURES  ON  THE  REFORMA- 
TION OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  IN  ITS 
RELATION  TO  MODERN  THOUGHT  AND  KNOW- 
LEDGE. (Hibbert  Lectures,  1883.)  8vo,  cloth.  ioj.  6d. 
Cheap  Edition,  3rd  Edition,  3J.  6d. 

DAVIDS  (T.  W.  RHYS).  LECTURES  ON  SOME  POINTS 
IN  THE  HISTORY  OF  INDIAN  BUDDHISM.  (Hib. 
Lee,  1881.)    2nd  Ed.     8vo,  cloth,     ioj.  6d.     Cheap  Ed.,  y.  6d. 

DRUMMOND  (Dr.)  VIA,  VERITAS,  VITA.  Lectures  on 
Christianity  in  its  most  Simple  and  Intelligible  Form.  (The 
Hibbert  Lectures,  1894.)     ioj.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  3.?.  6d. 

HATCH  (Rev.  Dr.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  INFLUENCE 
OF  GREEK  IDEAS  AND  USAGES  UPON  THE 
CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.  Edited  by  Dr.  Fairbairn.  (Hibbert 
Lectures,  1888.)  3rd  Edition.  8vo,  cloth,  ioj.  6d.  Cheap 
Edition,  3  J.  6d. 

KUENEN  (Dr.  A.).  LECTURES  ON  NATIONAL 
RELIGIONS  AND  UNIVERSAL  RELIGION.  (The 
Hibbert  Lectures,  1882.)  8vo,  cloth,  ioj.  6d.  Cheap  Edition, 
3.5-.  6d. 

MONTEFIORE  (C.  G.).  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH  OF 
RELIGION  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  THE  RELIGION 
OF  THE  ANCIENT  HEBREWS.  (The  Hibbert  Lectures, 
1892.)   2nd  Edition.    8vo,  cloth.     ioj.  6d.    Cheap  Edition,  3.5-.  6d. 

PFLEIDERER  (Dr.  O.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  IN- 
FLUENCE OF  THE  APOSTLE  PAUL  ON  THE 
DEVELOPMENT  OF  CHRISTIANITY.  Translated  by 
the  Rev.  J.  Frederick  Smith.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1885.)  2nd 
Edition.     8vo,  cloth.     ioj.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  3J.  6d. 

RENAN  (E.).  ON  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  INSTITU- 
TIONS, THOUGHT,  AND  CULTURE  OF  ROME 
ON  CHRISTIANITY  AND  THE  DEVELOPMENT 
OF  THE  CATHOLIC  CHURCH.  Translated  by  the  Rev. 
Charles  Beard.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1880.)  8vo,  cloth,  ioj.  6d. 
Cheap  Edition,  3rd  Edition,  3*.  6d. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


14  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

THE  HIBBERT  LECTURES-Continued. 

RENOUF  (P.  LE  PAGE).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF 
ANCIENT  EGYPT.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1879.)  3rd  Edition. 
8vo,  cloth.     10s.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  y.  6d. 

RHYS  (Prof.  J.).  ON  THE  ORIGIN  AND  GROWTH 
OF  RELIGION  AS  ILLUSTRATED  BY  CELTIC 
HEATHENDOM.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1886.)  8vo,  cloth. 
10s.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  y.  6d. 

REVILLE  (Dr.  A.).  ON  THE  NATIVE  RELIGIONS  OF 
MEXICO  AND  PERU.  Translated  by  the  Rev.  P.  H. 
Wicksteed.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1884.)  8vo,  cloth.  10s.  6d. 
Cheap  Edition,  y.  6d. 

SAYCE  (Prof.  A  H.).  ON  THE  RELIGION  OF 
ANCIENT  ASSYRIA  AND  BABYLONIA.  4th  Edition. 
(Hibbert  Lectures,  1887.)    8vo,  cloth.     10s.  6d.    Cheap  Ed. ,  y.  6d. 

UPTON  (Rev.  C.  B.).  ON  THE  BASES  OF  RE- 
LIGIOUS BELIEF.  (Hibbert  Lectures,  1893.)  Demy  8vo, 
cloth,     iox.  6d.     Cheap  Edition,  y.  6d, 


ALPHABETICAL  LIST. 


ADDIS  (W.  E.).  HEBREW  RELIGION.  4*.  6d.  net.  See 
Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  11. 

ALLIN  (Rev.  THOS.).  UNIVERSALISM  ASSERTED 
AS  THE  HOPE  OF  THE  GOSPEL  ON  THE 
AUTHORITY  OF  REASON,  THE  FATHERS,  AND 
HOLY  SCRIPTURE.  With  a  Preface  by  Edna  Lyall,  and  a 
Letter  from  Canon  Wilberforce.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     2s.  6d.  net. 

ALVIELLA  (Count  GOBLET  D').  THE  CONTEMPOR- 
ARY EVOLUTION  OF  RELIGIOUS  THOUGHT  IN 
ENGLAND,  AMERICA,  AND  INDIA.  Translated  from 
the  French  by  the  Rev.  J.  Moden.     8vo,  cloth.     10s.  6d. 

EVOLUTION    OF    THE   IDEA  OF    GOD.      See  The 

Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

ANGLICAN  LIBERALISM.  By  Twelve  Churchmen.  4s.  6d. 
See  Crown  Theological  Library,  p.  12. 

BAUR  (F.  C).  CHURCH  HISTORY  OF  THE  FIRST 
THREE  CENTURIES.  2  vols.,  12s.  See  Theological 
Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

PAUL,    THE    APOSTLE    OF    JESUS     CHRIST. 

2  vols.,  I2J.    See  Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

BEARD  (Rev.  Dr.  C).  THE  UNIVERSAL  CHRIST. 
AND  OTHER  SERMONS.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     7s.  6d. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  15 

ALPHABETICAL  LIST— Continued. 

BEARD  (Rev.  Dr.  C).  LECTURES  ON  THE  REFORMA- 
TION OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  IN  ITS 
RELATION  TO  MODERN  THOUGHT  AND  KNOW- 
LEDGE.    See  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

BEEBY  (Rev.  C.  E.,  B.D.,  Author  of  "Creed  and  Life"). 
DOCTRINE  AND  PRINCIPLES.  Popular  Lectures  on 
Primary  Questions.     Demy  8vo,  cloth.     $s.  6d. 

BEVAN  (Rev.  J.  O.,  M.A.,  F.G.S.,  F.S.A.,  etc.,  Rector  of 
Chillenden,  Dover).  THE  GENESIS  AND  EVOLUTION 
OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  SOUL  SCIENTIFICALLY 
TREATED.  Including  also  Problems  relating  to  Science 
and  Immortality.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     2s.  6d.  net. 

"  Meets  the  much  debated  questions  which  are  raised  by  the  more  thought- 
ful, and  perhaps  able,  opponents  of  belief  in  a  second  life,  and  is  a  work  of  great 
value,  and  one  that  is  opportune  in  its  publication,  and  besides, per  se,  emphati- 
cally interesting  reading." — Manchester  Courier. 

BIBLE.  Translated  by  Samuel  Sharpe,  being  a  Revision  of  the 
Authorised  English  Version.  6th  Edition  of  the  Old,  10th  Edition 
of  the  New  Testament.     8vo,  roan.     $s.     See  also  Testament. 

BLEEK(F.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  APOCALYPSE.  See 

Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

BOUSSET  (Prof.  W.).  JESUS.  8vo.  3s.  6d.  net.  See  Crown 
Theological  Library,  p.  10. 

BREMOND  (HENRI).     THE  MYSTERY  OF  NEWMAN. 

With  an  Introduction  by  Rev.  George  Tyrrell,  M.A.  Medium  8vo, 
cloth.      10s.  6d.  net. 

"  From  France  comes  a  remarkable  volume,  excellently  translated,  which 
endeavours  to  probe  the  mystery  ;  to  realise,  as  it  were,  the  soul  of  Newman, 
to  describe  to  us  justly  and  truthfully  the  personality  of  the  man." — Daily 
Chronicle. 

"  No  subsequent  work  can  deprive  M.  Bremond's  book  of  its  great  psycho- 
logical interest ;  it  is  a  work  that,  unlike  many  books  on  Newman  and  the 
Tractarians,  no  student  of  modern  Christianity  can  afford  to  miss." — Pall  Mall 
Gazette. 

CAMPBELL  (Rev.  Canon  COLIN,  M.A.,  D.D.,).  FIRST 
THREE  GOSPELS  IN  GREEK.  3*.  6d.  net.  See  Testa- 
ment, New,  p.  27. 

CAMPBELL  (Rev.  R.  J.,  M.A.).  NEW  THEOLOGY 
SERMONS.     Crown  Svo,  cloth.     6s. 

CHANNING'S  COMPLETE  WORKS.  Including  "The 
Perfect  Life, "  with  a  Memoir.  Centennial  Edition.  4to  Edition. 
Cloth.     7 s.  6d. 

CHEYNE  (Prof.  T.  K.).  BIBLE  PROBLEMS  AND  THE 
NEW  MATERIAL  FOR  THEIR  SOLUTION.  4*.  6d. 
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ISM.    See  The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

DELITZSCH  (F.).  BABEL  AND  BIBLE.  Two  Lectures 
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DRIVER  (S.  R.).     See  Mosheh  ben  Shesheth,  p.  23. 

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PHILO  JUDiEUS.     Seep.  29. 

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THE  TRUTH  OF  RELIGION.     See  page  2. 

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OF  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  See  Theological  Transla- 
tion Library,  Old  Series,  p.  7. 

COMMENTARY  ON  THE  PSALMS.     See  Theological 

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COMMENTARY  ON  THE  BOOK  OF  JOB.  See  Theo- 
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HAUSRATH  (Prof.  A).  HISTORY  OF  THE  NEW 
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P-  13- 
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OTTO  (R.).  NATURALISM  AND  RELIGION.  5*.  net. 
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DEVELOPMENT     OF     CHRISTIANITY.      See     The 

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32  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

A  SYSTEM  OF  SYNTHETIC  PHILOSOPHY— Continued. 

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No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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No. 

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No. 

10. 

CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  33 

SPENCER  (HERBERT).  DESCRIPTIVE  SOCIOLOGY; 
or,  Groups  of  Sociological  Facts.  Compiled  and  abstracted 
by  Professor  D.  Duncan  of  Madras,  Dr.  Richard  Scheppig,  and 
James  Collier.     Folio,  boards. 

English.     i8j. 

Ancient  American  Races.     16s. 
Lowest  Races,  Negritto  Races,  Polynesians.     i8j. 
African  Races.     16s. 
Asiatic  Races.     iSs. 
American  Races.     18s, 
Hebrews  and  Phoenicians.    21s. 
The  French  Civilisation.     30J. 

Greeks  :  Hellenic  Era.     By  Rev.  Dr  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  and 
Professor  W.  A.  Goligher,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 
No.    II.  Chinese.     Compiled  and  abstracted  by  E.  T.  C.  Werner, 
H.M.'s  Consular  Service,  China.     Just  ready.     63X. 

In  Preparation. 

Edited  by  Henry  R.  Tedder,  Secretary  and  Librarian  of  the 
Athenaeum  Club. 

Ancient  Egyptians. 

Hellenistic  Greeks.  By  Rev.  Dr  J.  P.  Mahaffy,  and  Pro- 
fessor W.  A.  Goligher,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Romans.  By  Mr  E.  H.  Alton,  F.T.C.D.,  and  Professor 
W.  A.  Goligher. 

COLLINS  (F.  HA  AN  EPITOME  OF  THE  SYN- 
THETIC PHILOSOPHY.  By  F.  Howard  Collins.  Being 
a  Digest  of  Mr.  Herbert  Spencer's  Works.  5th  Edition,  the 
Synthetic  Philosophy  Completed.  With  a  Preface  by  Herbert 
Spencer.     8vo,  cloth.     $s.  net. 

SPINOZA  :  Four  Essays.  By  Professors  Land,  Van  Vloten,  and 
Kuno  Fischer,  and  by  E.  Renan.  Edited  by  Professor  Knight,  of 
St.  Andrews.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     $s. 

STOCKER     (R.     DIMSDALE).        SOCIAL     IDEALISM. 

Crown  8vo,  cloth.     3^.  net. 

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no  pages.  Vol.  IV.  1896,  141  pages.  Vol.  V.  1897,  105  pages. 
Vol.  VI.  1898,  105  pages. 

WUNDT  (WILHELM).  OUTLINES  OF  PSYCHOL- 
OGY. Translated,  with  the  co-operation  of  the  Author,  by 
Charles  Hubbard  Judd,  Ph.D.,  Instructor  in  the  Wesleyan 
University.     3rd  Enlarged  Edition.     Demy  8vo,  cloth.     8s.  net. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 

3 


34  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

III.   Oriental  Languages,  Literature, 
and  History. 

AVESTI,  PAHLAVI,  and  ANCIENT  PERSIAN  STUDIES 
in  Honour  of  the  late  SHAMS-UL-ULAMA  DASTUR 
PESHOTANJI  BEHRAMJI  SANJANA,  M.A.,  Ph.D. 
Paper  cover,  1 2s.  6d  net ;  cloth,  1 y.  6d.  net. 

DAVIDS  (T.  W.  RHYS).  LECTURES  ON  SOME  POINTS 
IN    THE    HISTORY  OF   INDIAN   BUDDHISM.     See 

The  Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  13. 

DELITZSCH  (Prof.  F.).  ASSYRIAN  GRAMMAR.  With 
Paradigms,  Exercises,  Glossary,  and  Bibliography.  Translated  by 
the  Rev.  Prof.  A.  R.  S.  Kennedy.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     15*. 

THE    HEBREW    LANGUAGE   VIEWED    IN    THE 

LIGHT    OF    ASSYRIAN     RESEARCH.        Demy    8vo, 

cloth.     4s. 

BABEL  AND  BIBLE.     4s.  6d.  net.     See  Crown  Theological 

Library,  p.  9. 

DILLMANN  (A).  ETHIOPIC  GRAMMAR.  Translated 
from  C.  Bezold's  Second  German  Edition.  By  Rev.  J.  A. 
Crichton,  D.D.,  with  Index  of  Passages,  Philological  Tables,  etc. 
1  vol.,  royal  8vo.     25^.  net. 

DtPAVAMSA  (THE):  A  Buddhist  Historical  Record  in  the 
Pali  Language.  Edited,  with  an  English  Translation,  by  Dr. 
H.  Oldenberg.     8vo,  cloth.     21s. 

The  "Dipavamsa"  is  the  most  ancient  historical  work  of  the  Ceylonese  ;  it 
contains  an  account  of  the  ecclesiastical  history  of  the  Buddhist  Church,  of  the 
conversion  of  the  Ceylonese  to  the  Buddhist  faith,  and  of  the  ancient  history  of 
Ceylon. 

ERMAN'S  EGYPTIAN  GRAMMAR.  Translated,  under 
Professor  Erman's  supervision,  by  J.  H.  Breasted,  Professor  of 
Egyptology  in  the  University  of  Chicago.    Crown  8vo,  cloth.     i8j. 

EVANS  (GEORGE).   AN  ESSAY  ON  ASSYRIOLOGY. 

With  4to  Tables  of  Assyrian  Inscriptions.     8vo,  cloth.     5j. 

FAIZULLAH-BHAI  (Shaikh,  B.D.).  A  MOSLEM 
PRESENT.  Part  I. ,  containing  the  famous  poem  of  Al-Busaree. 
With  an  English  Version  and  Notes.     8vo,  cloth.     4s. 

AN    ESSAY    ON    THE    PRE-ISLAMITIC    ARABIC 

POETRY,  with  special  reference  to  the  Seven  Suspended 
Poems.     8vo,  sewed.     4d. 

FLINDERS  PETRIE  PAPYRI.  See  Cunningham  Memoirs, 
p.  44- 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  35 

FRANKFURTER  (Dr.  O.).  HANDBOOK  OF  PALI :  Being 
an  Elementary  Grammar,  a  Chrestomathy,  and  a  Glossary. 
8vo,  cloth.     16s. 

FUERST  (Dr.  JUL.).  HEBREW  AND  CHALDEE 
LEXICON  TO  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  5th  Edition, 
improved  and  enlarged.  Translated  by  Rev.  Dr.  Samuel  Davidson. 
Royal  8vo,  cloth.     21s. 

HEBREW  TEXTS.     Large  type.     i6mo,  cloth. 

Genesis.    (2nd  Edition.    Baer  and  Delitzsch's  Text. )    is.  6d. 
Psalms,     is. 
Job.     is. 
Isaiah,     is. 

KENNEDY  (Rev.  JAS.).  INTRODUCTION  TO  BIBLICAL 
HEBREW,  presenting  Graduated  Instruction  in  the 
Language  of  the  Old  Testament.  By  James  Kennedy,  B.D., 
Acting  Librarian  in  the  New  College,  and  one  of  the  additional 
Examiners  in  Divinity  at  the  University,  Edinburgh.  8vo,  cloth. 
12s. 

STUDIES    IN    HEBREW    SYNONYMS.     Demy  8vo, 

cloth.     55. 

LEWIS,  AGNES  SMITH  (Edited  by).  OLD  SYRIAC 
GOSPELS, or  EVANGELION  DA-MEPH AR-RESTRE. 
This  is  the  Text  of  the  Sinia  Palimpsest,  including  the  latest 
additions  and  emendations,  with  the  variants  of  the  Curetonian 
Text,  corroborations  from  many  other  MSS. ,  and  a  list  of  quotations 
from  ancient  authors.  With  4  facsimiles.  Quarto,  bound  half- 
leather.     2$s.  net. 

LYALL  (C.  J.,  M.A.,  K.C.I.E.).  ANCIENT  ARABIAN 
POETRY,  CHIEFLY  PRiE-ISLAMIC.  Translations, with 
an  Introduction  and  Notes.     Fcap.  4to,  cloth.     10s.  6d. 

MACHBEROTH  ITHIEL.  By  Yehuda  ben  Shelomoh  Alcharizi. 
Edited  from  the  MS.  in  the  Bodleian  Library,  by  Thomas 
Chenery,  M.A.     8vo,  cloth,     y. 

MILANDA  PANHO,  THE:  Being  Dialogues  between  King 
Milanda  and  the  Buddhist  Sage  Nagasena.  The  Pali  Text, 
edited  by  V.  Trenckner.  440  pp.  8vo,  sewed.  21s.  See  also 
"  Pali  Miscellany." 

MOSHEH  BEN  SHESHETH'S  COMMENTARY  ON 
JEREMIAH  AND  EZEKIEL.     See  p.  23. 

NEW  HEBREW  SCHOOL  of  POETS  of  the  SPANISH- 
ARABIAN  EPOCH.  Selected  Texts  with  Introduction,  Notes, 
and  Dictionary.  Edited  by  H.  Brody,  Ph.D.,  Rabbi  in  Nachod 
(Bohemia),  and  K.  Albrecht,  Ph.D.,  Professor  in  Oldenburg 
(Grand  Duchy).  English  translation  of  the  Introduction,  etc.,  by 
Mrs  Karl  Albrecht.     Cloth.     75.  6d.  net. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


36  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

NOLDEKE  (THEODOR,  Professor  of  Oriental  Languages 
in  the  University  of  Strassburg).  COMPENDIOUS 
SYRIAC  GRAMMAR.  With  a  Table  of  Characters  by  Julius 
Euting.  Translated  (with  the  sanction  of  the  author)  from  the 
second  and  improved  German  Edition  by  Rev.  James  A.  Crichton, 
D.D.     Royal  8vo.     18j.net. 

DELECTUS     VETERUM      CARMINUM     ARABI- 

CORUM   GLOSSARIUM    CONFECIT  A.    MULLER. 

Crown  8vo,  cloth.     7*.  6d. 

NORRIS  (E.).  ASSYRIAN  DICTIONARY.  Intended  to 
further  the  Study  of  the  Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Assyria  and 
Babylonia.     Vols.  I.  to  III.     4lo,  cloth.     Each  28s. 

OLDENBERG  (Prof.  H.).  BUDDHA  :  His  Life,  his  Doctrine, 
his  Order.  By  Dr.  Hermann  Oldenberg,  Professor  at  the 
University  of  Berlin.  Translated  by  W.  Hoey,  M.  A.  8vo,  cloth 
gilt.     i8j. 

PALI  MISCELLANY.  By  V.  Trenckner.  Part  I.  The  Intro- 
ductory Part  of  the  Milanda  Panho,  with  an  English  Translation 
and  Notes.     8vo,  sewed.     4J. 

PLATTS  (J.  T.).  A  GRAMMAR  OF  THE  PERSIAN 
LANGUAGE.  By  John  T.  Platts,  Hon.  M.A.  (Oxon.),  Teacher 
of  Persian  in  the  University  of  Oxford  ;  late  Inspector  of  Schools  in 
the  Central  Provinces  of  India.  Part  I.  Accidence.  Broad  crown 
8vo.     10s.  6d. 

RENOUF  (P.  LE  PAGE).  LECTURES  ON  THE  RE- 
LIGION OF  ANCIENT  EGYPT.  See  Hibbert  Lectures, 
p.  14. 

SADI.  THE  GULISTAN  (ROSE  GARDEN)  OF  SHAIK 
SADI  OF  SHIRAZ.  A  new  Edition  of  the  Persian  Text,  with 
a  Vocabulary,  by  F.  Johnson.     Square  royal  8vo,  cloth.     15J. 

SAYCE  (Prof.  A.  H.).  LECTURES  ON  THE  RELIGIONS 
OF   ANCIENT    BABYLONIA    AND    SYRIA.      See  the 

Hibbert  Lectures,  p.  14. 

SCHRADER  (E.).  THE  CUNEIFORM  INSCRIPTIONS 
AND  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT.  2  vols.  12s.  See 
Theological  Translation  Library,  Old  Series,  p.  8. 

SHIHAB  AL  DIN.  FUTOH  AL-HABASHAH  ;  or,  The 
Conquest  of  Abyssinia.  By  Shinab  al  Din  Ahmad  B.  'Abd  al 
Kadir  B.  Salim  B.  'Uthman.  Edited,  from  an  Arabic  MS.,  by 
S.  Arthur  Strong.     Part  I.     8vo,  sewed,     y.  net. 

SORENSEN  (S.,  Ph.D.),  Compiled  by.  AN  INDEX  TO 
THE  NAMES  IN  THE  MAHABHARATA.  With  short 
explanations.  Royal  4to,  in  twelve  parts,  which  are  not  sold 
separately,  at  Js.  6d.  per  part  net.     Parts  I.  and  V.  now  ready. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF   PUBLICATIONS.  37 

STATUTES,  THE,  OF  THE  APOSTLES.  The  hitherto 
unedited  Ethiopic  and  Arabic  Texts,  with  translations  of  Ethiopic, 
Arabic,  and  Coptic  Texts,  by  G.  Horner,  M.A.     See  p.  26. 

TEXT  AND  TRANSLATION  SOCIETY.  Established  for  the 
purpose  of  editing  and  translating  Oriental  Texts  chiefly  preserved 
in  the  British  Museum. 

THE  SIXTH  BOOK  OF  THE  SELECT  LETTERS 
OF  SEVERUS,  PATRIARCH  OF  ANTIOCH,  in 
the  Syriac  Version  of  Athanasius  of  Nisibis.  Edited 
and  translated  by  E.  W.  Brooks,  M.A.  Vol.  I.  Text,  Parts  I. 
and  II.     Vol.  II.  Translation,  Parts  I.  and  II.     84J.  net. 

THE  CANONS  OF  ATHANASIUS  OF  ALEX- 
ANDRIA, in  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  and  Coptic.  Edited 
and  Translated  by  Prof.  W.  Riedel  (Griefswald)  and  W.  E. 
Crum.     2\s.  net. 

A  RABBINIC  COMMENTARY  ON  THE  BOOK  OF 
JOB,  contained  in  a  unique  MS.  at  Cambridge. 
Edited,  with  Translation  and  Commentary,  by  W.  Aldis 
Wright,  LL.D.     21s.  net. 

AN  ANCIENT  ARMENIAN  VERSION  OF  THE 
APOCALYPSE  OF  ST  JOHN;  also  THE  ARME- 
NIAN TEXTS  OF  CYRIL  OF  ALEXANDRIA, 
SCHOLIA  DE  INCARNATIONE  and  EPISTLE 
TO  THEODOSIUS  UPON  EASTER,  the  former  in- 
completely preserved  in  Greek,  the  latter  unknown  in  Greek 
or  Latin.  All  edited,  with  English  versions,  etc.,  by  F.  C. 
Conybeare,  formerly  Fellow  of  University  College,  Oxford. 

REMNANTS  OF  THE  LATER  SYRIAC  VERSIONS 
OF  THE  BIBLE.  Part  I.  (Sixth  Century).  The  Four 
Minor  Catholic  Epistles.  Reconstructed  Text,  with  Apparatus 
Criticus.  Part  II.  (Seventh  Century).  Extracts,  hitherto  un- 
edited, from  the  Syro-Hexaplar  Text  of  Chronicles,  Nehemiah, 
etc.  All  edited,  with  Greek  versions,  etc. ,  by  John  Gwynn, 
D.  D.,  Regius  Professor  of  Divinity,  Dublin.     215.  net. 

In  the  Press, 

THE  REFUTATION  OF  MANI,  MARCION,  AND 
BARDAISAN  OF  ST  EPHRAIM.  Edited  by  the 
Rev.  C.  W.   Mitchell. 


TURPIE  (Dr.  D.  McC).  MANUAL  OF  THE  CHALDEE 
LANGUAGE.  Containing  Grammar  of  the  Biblical  Chaldee 
and  of  the  Targums,  and  a  Chrestomathy,  with  a  Vocabulary. 
Square  8vo,  cloth.     "js. 

WALLIS  (H.  W.).  THE  COSMOLOGY  OF  THE  RIG- 
VEDA  :  An  Essay.    8vo,  cloth.     55. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


38  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 


IV.   Modern  Languages  &  Literature. 

A  complete  list  of  Messrs.  Williams  &  Norgate's  Educational  Publi- 
cations on  Modern  Languages  may  be  had  on  application. 


ARMY  SERIES  OF  FRENCH  AND  GERMAN  NOVELS. 

Edited,  with  short  Notes,  by  J.  T.  W.  Perowne,  M.A. 

This  series  is  equally  well  adapted  for  general  reading,  and  for  those 
preparing  for  the  Army,  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Certificates,  and  other 
Examinations — in  fact,  for  all  who  wish  to  keep  up  or  improve  their  French 
and  German.  The  notes  are  as  concise  as  possible,  with  an  occasional 
etymology  or  illustration  to  assist  the  memory.  The  books  selected  being 
by  recent  or  living  authors,  are  adapted  for  the  study  of  most  modern  French 
and  German. 

LE  COUP  DE  PISTOLET,  etc.    Prosper  Merimee.    2s.  6d. 

"A  book  more  admirably  suited  to  its  purpose  could  not  be  desired.  The 
Editors  deserve  to  be  congratulated." — National  Observer. 

VAILLANTE.     Jacques  Vincent,     zs.  6d. 

"  The  books  are  well  got  up,  and  in  Vaillante  an  excellent  choice  has  been 
made. " — Guardian. 

AUF   VERLORNEM    POSTEN    AND    NAZZARENA 
DANTI.     Johannes  v.  Dewall.     35. 

"Well  piinted,  well  bound,  and  annotated  just  sufficiently  to  make  the 
reading  of  them  sure  as  well  as  easy." — Educational  Times. 

CONTES  MILITAIRES.     A.  Daudet.     zs.  6d. 

"  These  stories  are  mainly  culled  from  a  series  called  Contes  du  Lundi, 
originally  contributed  by  their  author  to  the  Figaro.  Written  at  fever  heat 
immediately  after  the  great  1870  war,  they  show  Daudet's  power  in  many  ways 
at  its  highest.  .  .  .  We  therefore  do  more  than  recommend — we  urge  all 
readers  of  French  to  get  the  stories  in  some  form,  and  the  present  one  is  both 
good  and  cheap." — The  Schoolmaster. 

ERZAHLUNGEN.     E.  Hofer.     3s. 

"The  series  has  brought  fascinating  examples  of  fiction  under  the  eyes  of 
English  readers  in  a  neat  and  handy  form.  Besides  having  the  military  flavour, 
they  are  models  of  style." — Scotsman. 


BAYLDON  (Rev.  G.).  ICELANDIC  GRAMMAR.  An 
Elementary  Grammar  of  the  Old  Norse  or  Icelandic  Language. 
8vo,  cloth.     Js.  6d. 

14  Henrietta  Street,  Covent  Garden,  London,  W.C. 


CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  39 

BOIELLE  (JAS.).  FRENCH  COMPOSITION  THROUGH 
LORD  MACAULAY'S  ENGLISH.  Edited,  with  Notes, 
Hints,  and  Introduction,  by  the  late  James  Boi'eHe,  B.A.  (Univ. 
Gall.),  Officier  d'Academie,  Senior  P'rench  Master,  Dulwich 
College,  etc.,  etc.  Crown  8vo,  cloth.  Vol.  I.  Frederick  the 
Great.  3J.  Vol.  II.  Warren  Hastings.  31.  Vol.  III.  Lord 
Clive.     3<y. 

See  Victor  Hugo,  "Les  Miserables"  and  "Notre  Dame." 

DELBOS  (L.).  NAUTICAL  TERMS  IN  ENGLISH 
AND  FRENCH  AND  FRENCH  AND  ENGLISH. 

With  Notes  and  Tables.  For  the  use  of  Naval  Officers  and  Naval 
Cadets.  By  Leon  Delbos,  M.A.,  of  H.M.S.  Britannia,  Dart- 
mouth. 4th  Edition,  thoroughly  revised  and  considerably 
enlarged,  with  additional  Plates.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     7j.  6d.  net. 

THE   STUDENT'S   GRADUATED   FRENCH 

READER.  Remodelled  and  rewritten.  Edited,  with  Notes  and 
a  Complete  Vocabulary.  First  Year — Part  I.  Anecdotes,  Tales, 
and  Exercises.  Part  II.  Tales,  Historical  Pieces,  and  Exercises. 
is.  6d.  each.     Second  Year — Parts  I.  and  II.  in  the  Press. 

EUGENE'S  STUDENT'S  COMPARATIVE  GRAMMAR 
OF  THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE,  with  an  Historical 
Sketch  of  the  Formation  of  French.  For  the  use  of  Public 
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O'GRADY  (STANDISH  H.).  SILVA  GADELICA  (I.- 
XXXI. ).  A  Collection  of  Tales  in  Irish,  with  Extracts  illus- 
trating Persons  and  Places.  Edited  from  MSS.  and  translated. 
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Dialogues,  with  Translations,  preceded  by  short  Grammatical 
Notes.     Crown  8vo,  cloth.     2s.  6d.  net. 

PHILLIPPS  (V.,  B.A.).  A  SHORT  SKETCH  OF 
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2nd  Edition,  revised.     Pott  8vo,  cloth,     is. 

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ROSING  (S.).     ENGLISH-DANISH    DICTIONARY.     New 

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SCHILLER  (F.  VON).  ANNOTATED  TEXTS.  See  Educa- 
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SYSTEMATIC   CONVERSATIONAL    EXERCISES 

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ZOEGA  (G.  T.).     ENGLISH-ICELANDIC  DICTIONARY. 

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CATALOGUE  OF  PUBLICATIONS.  47 


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VI.   Miscellaneous. 

ANTHROPOLOGY— SOCIOLOGY— MYTHOLOGY- 
BIBLIOGRAPHY— BIOGRAPHY,   ETC. 

AVEBURY  (Lord,  D.C.L.,  F.R.S.,  etc.)  (Sir  John  Lubbock). 
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mains and  the  Manners  and  Customs  of  Modern  Savages. 
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letterpress.  Lord  Avebury  is  to  be  congratulated  on  the  new  edition,  which 
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people. " — Science  Gossip. 

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BLACKBURN    (HELEN).     WOMEN'S    SUFFRAGE.     A 

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Acts." 

CATALOGUE  OF  THE  LONDON  LIBRARY,  St  James's 
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See  also  Subject  Index,  p.  53. 

ENGELHARDT  (C).  DENMARK  IN  THE  EARLY 
IRON  AGE.  Illustrated  by  recent  Discoveries  in  the  Peat- 
Mosses  of  Slesvig.  33  Plates  (giving  representations  of  upwards  of 
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HENRY  (JAMES).  ^NEIDEA  ;  or,  Critical,  Exegetical  and 
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JOHNSON  (E.).     THE  RISE  OF  ENGLISH  CULTURE. 

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LONDON  LIBRARY  SUBJECT  INDEX.     A  quarto  volume  of 
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54  WILLIAMS  &  NORGATE'S 

MEREDITH   (LEWIS   B.)      ROCK    GARDENS.      How  to 

Make  and  Maintain  them.  With  an  Introduction  by  F.  W. 
Moore,  A.  L.  S. ,  and  an  Alphabetical  List  of  Plants  suitable  for  the 
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INDEX  UNDER  AUTHORS   &  TITLES 


Acland,  Sir  C.  T.  D.    Anglican  Liberalism, 

12. 
Acts  of  the  Apostles.     Harnack,  12  ;  Zeller,  8. 
Addis,  W.  E.     Hebrew  Religion,  n. 
./Eneidea.    James  Henry,  52. 
Aeroplane,  How  to  Build,  Petit,  48. 
Agricultural  Chemical  Analysis.     Wiley,  50. 
Alchemy    of    Thought,    and     other     Essays. 

Jacks,  20. 
Alcyonium.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Allin,  Rev.  Thos.     Universalism  Asserted,  14. 
Alton,  E.  H.     Romans,  33. 
Alviella,    Count    Goblet    D'.      Contemporary 

Evolution  of  Religious  Thought,  14. 
Alviella,  Count  Goblet  D'.     Idea  of  God,  13. 
Americans,  The.     Hugo  Miinsterberg,  30. 
Analysis  of  Ores.     F.  C.  Phillips,  48. 
Analysis  of  Theology.     E.  G.  Figg   17. 
Ancient  Assyria,  Religion  of.     Sayce,  14. 
Ancient  Egyptians,  33. 
Ancient  World,  Wall  Maps  of  the,  53. 
Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Annotated  Texts.     Goethe,  39. 
Antedon.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  47. 
Anthems.     Rev.  R.  Crompton  Jones,  21. 
Antiqua  Mater.     Edwin  Johnson,  20. 
Anunda.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  47. 
Apocalypse.     Bleek,  7, 
Apocalypse  of  St  John,  37. 
Apologetic  of  the  New  Test.     E.  F.  Scott,  12. 
Apostle  Paul,  the,  Lectures  on.     Pfleiderer,  13. 
Apostolic  Age,  The.     Carl  von  Weizsacker,  6. 
Arabian  Poetry,  Ancient,  34. 
Arenicola.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  47. 
Argument  of  Adaptation.  Rev.  G.  Henslow,  19. 
Aristotelian  Society,  Proceedings  of,  30. 
Army  Series  of  French  and  German  Novels,  38. 
Ascidia.     Johnstone,  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Ashworth,  J.  H.     Arenicola,  47. 
Assyrian  Dictionary.     Norris,  35. 
Assyriology,  Essay  on.     George  Evans,  34. 
Astigmatic  Letters.     Dr.  Pray,  48. 
Alhanasius  of  Alexandria,  Canons  of,  37. 
Atlas  Antiquus,  Kiepert's,  52. 
Atonement,  Doctrine  of  the.     Sabatier,  10. 
At-one-ment,  The.     Rev.  G.  Henslow,  19. 
Auf  Verlornem  Posten.     Dewall,  38. 
Avebury,  Lord.     Prehistoric  Times,  51. 
Avesti,  Pahlavi.     Persian  Studies,  34. 

Babel  and  Bible.     Friedrich  Delitzsch,  9. 
Bacon,  Roger,  The  "Opus  Majus"  of,  2^. 
Ball,  Sir  Robert  S.     Cunningham  Memoir,  44. 
Bases  of  Religious  Belief.   C.  B.  Upton,  14. 
Bastian,  H.  C.     Studies  in  Heterogenesis,  43. 
Baur.    Church  History,  7  ;  Paul,  7. 
Bayldon,  Rev.  G.     Icelandic  Grammar,  38. 
Beard,   Rev.  Dr.   C.      Universal   Christ,   14  ; 

Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century,  13. 
Beeby,  Rev.  C.  E.   Doctrine  and  Principles,  15. 
Beet,  Prof.  J.  A.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Beet-Sugar  Making,  Nakaido,  48. 
Beginnings  of  Christianity.     Paul  Wernle,  4. 
Beliefs  about  the  Bible.     M.  J.  Savage,  25. 
Benedict,  F.  E.    Organic  Analysis,  43. 
Bergey,  D.  G.     Practical  Hygiene,  43. 


Bevan,  Rev.  J.  O.  Genesis  and  Evolution  of 
the  Individual  Soul,  15. 

Bible.    Translated  by  Samuel  Sharpe,  15. 

Bible,  Beliefs  about,  Savage,  25  ;  Bible  Plants, 
Henslow,  19  ;  Bible  Problems,  Prof.  T.  K. 
Cheyne,  9  ;  How  to  Teach  the,  Rev.  A.  F. 
Mitchell,  22 ;  Remnants  of  Later  Syriac 
Versions  of,  37. 

Biblical  Hebrew,  Introduction  to.  Rev.  Jas. 
Kennedy,  35. 

Biltz,  Henry.  Methods  of  Determining  Mole- 
cular Weights,  43. 

Biology,  Principles  of.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 

Blackburn,  Helen.     Women's  Suffrage,  51. 

Bleek.     Apocalypse,  7. 

Boielle,  Jas.  French  Composition,  39  ;  Hugo, 
Les  Miserables,  39;  Notre  Dame,  39. 

Bolton.     History  of  the  Thermometer,  43. 

Book  of  Prayer.     Crompton  Jones,  21. 

Books  of  the  New  Testament.    Von  Soden,  10. 

Bousset,  Wilhelm.    Jesus,  10. 

Bremond,  Henri.     Mystery  of  Newman,  15. 

Brewster,  H.  B.  The  Prison,  29;  The  Statu- 
ette and  the  Background,  29 ;  Anarchy  and 
Law,  29. 

Britain,  B.C.     Sharpe,  54. 

British  Fisheries.    J.  Johnstone,  45. 

Bruce,  Alex.  Topographical  Atlas  of  the 
Spinal  Cord,  43. 

Buddha.     Prof.  H.  Oldenberg,  36. 

Burkitt,  Prof.  F.  C.    Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 

Calculus,  Differential  and  Integral.     Harnack, 

44- 
Caldecott,  Dr.  A.     Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Campbell,  Rev.    Canon    Colin.      First    Three 

Gospels  in  Greek,  15. 
Campbell,  Rev.  R.  J.     New  Theology  Ser- 
mons, 15. 
Cancer.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  47. 
Cancer  and  other  Tumours.  Chas.  Creighton,43. 
Canonical  Books  of  the  Old  Testament,  3. 
Cape?Dutch.     J.  F.  Van  Oordt,  41. 
Cape  Dutch,  Werner's  Elementary  Lessons  in, 

42. 
Cardium.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Carlyle,  Rev.  A.  J.     Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Casey,  John.     Cunningham  Memoirs,  43. 
Catalogue  of  the  London  Library,  51. 
Celtic  Heathendom.     Prof.  J.  Rhys,  14. 
Celtic  Studies.     Sullivan,  41. 
Chadwick,  Antedon,  47  ;  Echinus,  46.  _ 
Chaldee  Language,  Manual  of.     Turpie,  37. 
Channing's  Complete  Works,  15. 
Chants  and  Anthems,  21  ;  Chants,  Psalms  and 

Canticles,  21. 
Character  of  the  Fourth  Gospel.     Rev.  John 

James  Tayler,  26. 
Chemical  Dynamics,  Studies  in.    J    H.  Van't 

Hoff,  45. 
Chemistry  for  Beginners.     Edward  Hart,  45. 
Chemist's  Pocket  Manual,  47. 
Cheyne,  Prof.  T.  K.     Bible  Problems,  9. 
Child  and  Religion,  The,  10. 
Chinese.     Werner,  33. 
Chondrus.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46 


58 


I N  D  EX— Continued. 


Christ  no  Product  of  Evolution.  Rev.  G. 
Henslow,  19. 

Christian  Creed,  Our,  16. 

Christian  Life,  Ethics  of  the,  2. 

Christian  Life  in  the  Primitive  Church.  Dob- 
schiitz,  3. 

Christian  Religion,  Fundamental  Truths  of 
the.     R.  Seeberg,  12. 

Christianity,  Beginnings  of.    Wernle,  4. 

Christianity  in  Talmud  and  Midrash.  R. 
Travers  Herford,  10. 

Christianity?    What  is.    Adolf  Hamack,  5,  9. 

Chromium,  Production  of.     Max  Leblanc,  46. 

Church  History.     Baur,  7.     Schubert,  3. 

Cleveland,  R.  E.  Soliloquies  of  St.  Augustine, 
3i- 

Closet  Prayers.     Dr.  Sadler,  25. 

Codium.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 

Coit,  Dr.  Stanton.  Idealism  and  State  Church, 
16  ;  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  16. 

Colby,  A.  L.  Reinforced  Concrete  in 
Europe,  43. 

Cole,  Frank  J.     Pleuronectes,  46. 

Collins,  F.  H.  Epitome  of  Synthetic  Philo- 
sophy, 29. 

Coming  Church.     Dr.  John  Hunter,  20. 

Commentary  on  the  Book  of  Job.  Ewald,  7  ; 
Wright  and  Hirsch,  28  ;  Commentary  on  the 
Old  Testament.  Ewald,  7  ;  Commentary  on 
the  Psalms.     Ewald,  7  ;   Protestant,  8,  23. 

CommonPrayer  for  Christian  Worship   16. 

Communion  with  God.     Herrmann,  5,  10. 

Conductivity  of  Liquids.    Tower,  49. 

Constitution  and  Law  of  the  Church.  Adolf 
Harnack,  12. 

Confessions  of  St.  Augustine.     Harnack,  ia. 

Contemporary  Evolution  of  Religious  Thought. 
Count  Goblet  D'Alviella,  14. 

Contes  Militaires.    Daudet,  38. 

Conybeare,  F.  C.     Apocalypse  of  St  John,  37. 

Cornill,  Carl.  Introduction  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, 3. 

Cosmology  of  the  Rigveda.    H.  W.  Wallis,  37. 

Creighton,  Chas.  Cancer  and  other  Tumours, 
43 ;  Tuberculosisj  43. 

Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  The.     Schrader,  8. 

Cunningham  Memoirs,  43,  44. 

Cunningham,  D.  J.,  M.D.  Lumbar  Curve  in 
Man  and  the  Apes,  43;  Surface  Anatomy 
of  the  Cerebral  Hemispheres.  Cunningham 
Memoir,  44. 

Cussans,  Margaret.    Gammarus,  47. 

Daniel  and  its  Critics;  Daniel  and  his  Pro- 
phecies.   Rev.  C.  H.  H.  Wright,  28. 

Darbishire,  Otto  V.     Chondrus,  46. 

Daudet,  A.    Contes  Militaires,  38. 

Davids,  T.  W.  Rhys.     Indian  Buddhism,  13. 

Davis,  J.  R.  Ainsworth.     Patella,  47. 

Dawning  Faith.     H.  Rix,  24. 

Delbos,  Leon.  Student's  Graduated  French 
Reader,  39. 

Delbos,  L.     Nautical  Terms,  39. 

Delectus  Veterum.    Theodor  Noldeke,  36. 

Delitzsch,  Friedrich.  Babel  and  Bible,  9; 
Hebrew  Language,  34  ;  Assyrian  Grammar, 
34- 


Democracy  and  Character.  Canon  Stephen,  26. 
Denmark  in  the  Early  Iron  Age.     C.  Engel- 

hardt,  51. 
De  Profundis  Clamavi.    Dr.  John  Hunter,  20. 
Descriptive  Sociology.     Herbert  Spencer,  33. 
Development  of  the  Periodic  Law.  Venable,  50. 
Dewall,  Johannes  v.,  Auf  Verlornem  Posten 

and  Nazzarena  Danti,  38. 
Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  The.     Axel 

Harnack,  44. 
Dillmann,  A.     Ethiopic  Grammar,  34. 
Dipavamsa,  The.    Edited  by  Oldenberg,  34. 
Dirge  of  Coheleth.     Rev.  C.  Taylor,  26. 
Dobschutz,  Ernst  von.     Christian  Life  in  the 

Primitive  Church,  3,  16. 
Doctrine  and  Principles.   Rev.  C.  E.  Beeby,  15. 
Dogma,  History  of.     Harnack,  18. 
Dole,  Chas.  F.     The  Ethics  of  Progress,  16. 
Driver,  S.  R.    Mosheh  ben  Shesheth,  23. 
Drummond,  Dr.  Jas.     Philo  Judaeus,  29  ;  Via, 

Veritas,  Vita,  13. 

Early  Christian  Conception.     Pfleiderer,  10. 
Early  Christian  Ethics.    Scallard,  31. 
Early  Hebrew  Story.     John  P.  Peters,  9. 
Ecclesiastical   Institutions  of  Holland.     Rev. 

P.  H.  Wicksteed,  27. 
Echinus.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Echoes  of  Holy  Thoughts,  17. 
Education.      Spencer,    32 ;      Lodge,     School 

Reform,  40. 
Egyptian  Faith,  The  Old.     Naville,  12. 
Egyptian  Grammar,  Erman's,  34. 
Electric  Furnace.     H.  Moisson,  47. 
Electrolysis  of  Water.    V.  Engelhardt,  44. 
Electrolytic    Laboratories.     Nissenson,  48. 
Eledone.     Vide  L.M.B.C   Memoirs,  47. 
Elementary  Chemistry.    Emery,  44. 
ElementaryOrganic  Analysis.  F.E.Benedict,43 
Emery,  F.  B.,  M.A.    Elementary  Chemistry, 

44- 
Engelhardt,  C.     Denmark  in  Iron  Age,  51. 
Engelhardt,  V.    Electrolysis  of  Water,  44. 
Engineering  Chemistry.     T.  B.  Stillman,  49. 
English  Culture,  Rise  of.    E.  Johnson,  52. 
English-Danish  Dictionary.    S.  Rosing,  41. 
English-Icelandic  Dictionary.     Zoega,  42. 
Enoch,  Book  of.    C.  Gill,  17. 
Ephesian  Canonical  Writings.    Green,  17. 
Epitome  of  Synthetic  Philosophy.     Collins,  29 
Erman's  Egyptian  Grammar,  34. 
Erzahlungen.     HSfer,  38. 
Espin,  Rev.  T.,  M.A.    The  Red  Stars,  44. 
Essays  on  the  Social  Gospel.     Harnack  and 

Herrmann,  n. 
Essays.     Herbert  Spencer,  32. 
Ethica.     Prof.  Simon  Lawrie,  30. 
Ethical  Import  of  Darwinism.    Schurman,  30 
Ethics,  Data  of.    Herbert  Spencer,  32. 
Ethics,  Early  Christian.     Prof.  Scullard,  31. 
Ethics,  Principles  of.    Herbert  Spencer,  31. 
Ethics  of  the  Christian  Life.    Haering,  2. 
Ethics  of  Progress,  The.     Dole,  16. 
Ethiopic  Grammar.    A.  Dillmann,  33. 
Eucken.  Prof.     Life  of  the  Spirit,  12. 
Eugene  s  Grammar  of  French  Language,  39. 
Evans,  George.    Essay  on  Assyriology,  34- 


INDEX— Continued. 


59 


Evolution,  A  New  Aspect  of.     Formby,  17. 
Evolution,  Christ  no  Product  of,  19. 
Evolution  of  Christianity.     C.  Gill,  17. 
Evolution  of  Knowledge.     R.  S.  Perrin,  23. 
Evolution  of  Religion,  The.     L.  R.  Farnell,  10. 
Ewald.     Commentary  on  Job,  7  ;  Commentary 

on  the  Old  Testament,  7 ;  Commentary  on 

the  Psalms,  7. 

Facts  and  Comments.     Herbert  Spencer,  32. 

Faith  and  Morals.     W.  Herrmann,  9. 

Faizullah-Bhai,  Shaikh,  B.D.  A  Moslem 
Present,  34 ;  Pre-Islamitic  Arabic  Poetry,  34. 

Farnell,  L.  R.    The  Evolution  of  Religion,  10. 

Farrie,  Hugh.  Highways  and  Byways  in 
Literature,  52. 

Fertilizers.  Vide  Wiley's  Agricultural  Analysis, 
So. 

Figg,  E.  G.     Analysis  of  Theology,  17. 

First  Principles.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 

First  Three  Gospels  in  Greek.  Rev.  Canon 
Colin  Campbell,  15. 

Fischer,  Prof.  Emil.  Introduction  to  the  Pre- 
paration of  Organic  Compounds,  44. 

Flinders  Petrie  Papyri.   Cunn.  Memoirs,  44. 

Formby,  Rev.  C.  W.     Re-Creation,  17. 

Four  Gospels  as  Historical  Records,  17. 

Frankfurter,  Dr.  O.     Handbook  of  Pali,  35. 

Free  Catholic  Church.    Rev.  J.  M.  Thomas,  27. 

Freezing  Point,  The,     Jones,  45. 

French  Composition.     Jas.  Boielle,  39. 

French  History,  First  Steps  in .  F.  F.  Roget,  4  r . 

French  Language,  Grammar  of.     Eugene,  39. 

Fuerst,  Dr.  Jul.  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexi- 
con, 35. 

Gammarus.     f>1t&  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Gardner,  Prof.  Percy.  Anglican  Liberalism,  12 ; 

Modernity  and  the  Churches,  12. 
General  Language  of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  40. 
Genesis,  Book  of,  in  Hebrew  Text.     Rev.  C. 

H.  H.  Wright,  28. 
Genesis,  Hebrew  Text,  35. 
Geometry,  Analytical,  Elements  of.   Hardy,  44. 
German  Idioms,  Short  Guide  to.     Weiss,  42. 
German  Literature,  A  Short  Sketch  of.     V. 

Phillipps,  B.A.,  41. 
German,  Systematic  Conversational  Exercises 

in.    T.  fl.  Weiss,  41. 
Gibson,  R.  J.  Harvey.     Codium,  46. 
Gill,  C.  >  Book  of  Enoch,   17;    Evolution   of 

Christianity,  17. 
Glimpses  of  Tennyson.     A.  G.  Weld,  55. 
Goethe,  W.  v.    Annotated  Texts,  39. 
Goldammer,  H.     The  Kindergarten,  52. 
Goligher,   Dr  W.  A.      Hellenic  Studies,  and 

Hellenistic  Greeks,  Romans,  33. 
Gospel  of  Rightness.    C.  E.  Woods,  28. 
Gospels  in  Greek,  First  Three,  15. 
Greek  Ideas,  Lectures  on.    Rev.  Dr.  Hatch,  13. 
Greek,  Modern,  A  Course  of.     Zompolides,  42. 
Greek  New  Testament,  6. 
Greeks  :  Hellenic  Era,  33. 
Green,  Rev.  A.  A.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Green,  Right  Rev.  A.  V.    Ephesian  Writings, 

i7- 
Grieben's  English  Guides,  52. 


Gulistan,  The  (Rose  Garden)  of  Shaik  Sadi  ol 

Shiraz,  36. 
Gwynn,  John.     Later  Syriac  Versions  of  the 

Bible,  37. 
Gymnastics,  Medical  Indoor.    Dr.  Schreber,  49. 

Haddon,  A.  C.  Decorative  Art  of  British 
Guinea,  Cunningham  Memoir,  44. 

Haering,  T.     Ethics  of  the  Christian  Life,  2. 

Hagmann,  J.  G.,  Ph.D.  Reform  in  Primary 
Education,  39. 

Handley,  Rev.  H.     Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 

Hantzsch,  A.    Elements  of  Stereochemistry,  44. 

Hardy.  Elements  of  Analytical  Geometry,  44  ; 
Infinitesimals  and  Limits,  44. 

Harnack,  Adolf.  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  12  ; 
Constitution  and  Law  of  the  Church,  12 ; 
History  of  Dogma,  4  ;  Letter  to  the  "  Preus- 
sische  jahrbucher,"  18  ;  Luke  the  Physician, 
ir;  Mission  and  Expansion  of  Christianity, 
3;  Monasticism,_r2  ;  The  Sayings  of  Jesus, 
12  ;  What  is  Christianity?  5,  9. 

Harnack,  Adolf,  and  Herrmann,  W.  Essays 
on  the  Social  Gospel,  it. 

Harnack  and  his  Oxford  Critics.    Saunders,  25. 

Harnack,  Axel.  Differential  and  Integral 
Calculus,  44. 

Hart,  Edward,  Ph.D.  Chemistry  for  Begin- 
ners, 45  ;  Second  Year  Chemistry,  45. 

Hatch,  Rev.  Dr.  Lectures  on  Greek  Ideas, 
13- 

Haughton,  Rev.  Samuel,  M.A.,  M.D.  New 
Researches  on  Sun-Heat,  43. 

Hausrath.    History  of  the  New  Test.  Times,  7. 

Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon.  Dr.  Fuerst, 
35- 

Hebrew  Language,  The.     F.  Delitzsch,  34. 

Hebrew,  New  School  of  Poets,  35. 

Hebrew  Religion.    W.  E.  Addis,  n. 

Hebrew  Story.     Peters,  g. 

Hebrew  Texts,  19,  35. 

Hellenic  Studies,  32. 

Hellenistic  Greeks.    Mahaffy  and  Goligher,  33. 

Henry,  Jas.     .lEneidea,  52. 

Henslow,  Rev.  G.  The  Argument  of  Adapta- 
tion, 19 ;  The  At-one-ment,  19 ;  Christ  no 
Product  of  Evolution,  19  ;  Spiritual  Teach- 
ings of  Bible  Plants,  19  ;  Spiritual  Teaching 
of  Christ's  Life,  19 ;  The  Vulgate,  19. 

Henson,  Rev.  Canon  Hensley.  Child  and 
Religion,  10. 

Herdman,  Prof.  W.  A.    Ascidia,  46. 

Herford,  R.  Travers,  B.A.  Christianity  in 
Talmud  and  Midrash,  19. 

Herrmann,  W.  Communion,  5,  10 ;  Faith  and 
Morals,  9. 

Herrmann  and  Harnack.  Essays  on  the  Social 
Gospel,  11. 

Heterogenesis,  Studies  in.     H.  Bastian,  43. 

Hewitt,  C.  Gordon.     Ligia,  47. 

Hibbert  Journal  Supplement  for  1909,  entitled 
Jesus  or  Christ  ?  20. 

Hibbert  Journal,  The,  20. 

Hibbert,  Lectures,  The,  13,  14. 

Hickson,  Sydney  J.     Alcyonium,  46. 

Highways  and  Byways  in  Literature,  52. 

Hill,  Rev.  Dr.  G.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 


6o 


INDEX— Continued. 


Hindu  Chemistry.     Prof.  P.  C.  Ray,  48. 
Hirsch,  Dr.   S.   A.,  and  W.    Aldis    Wright, 

edited  by.  Commentary  on  Job,  28. 
History  of  the  Church.  Hans  von  Schubert,  3. 
History  of  Dogma.  Adolf  Harnack,  4. 
History  of  Jesus  of  Nazara.  Keim,  7. 
History  of  the  Hebrews.  R.  Kittel,  5. 
History  of  the  Literature  of  the  O.T.   Kautzsch, 

20. 
History  of  the  New  Test.  Times.   Hausrath,  7. 
Hodgson,  S.  H.     Philosophy  and  Experience, 

29  ;  Reorganisation  of  Philosophy,  29. 
Hoerning,  Dr.  R.     The  Karaite  MSS.,  20. 
Hofer,  E.     Erzahlungen,  58. 
Hoff,  J.  H.  Van't.     Chemical  Dynamics,  45. 
Hollins,  Dorothea.    The  Quest,  52. 
Hornell,  J.     Marine  Zoology  of  Okhamandal, 

45- 
Horner,  G.    Statutes,  The,  of  the  Apostles,  36. 
Horse,Life-Size  Models  of.  J.T.ShareJones,45; 

the,  Surgical  Anatomy  of,  45. 
Horton,  Dr.  R.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Howe,  J.  L.     Inorganic  Chemistry,  45. 
How  to  Teach  the  Bible.    Mitchell,  22. 
Hugo,   Victor.     Les  Miserables,    39 ;    Notre 

Dame,  39. 
Hunter,  Dr.  John.  De  Profundis  Clamavi,  20 ; 

The  Coming  Church,  20  ;  God  and  Life,  20. 
Hygiene,  Handbook  of.     Bergey,  43. 
Hymns  of  Duty  and  Faith.    Jones,  21. 

Icelandic  Grammar.     Rev.  G.  Bayldon,  38. 
Idea  of  God.     Alviella,  Count  Goblet  D',  13. 
Imms,  A.  D.     Anurida,  47. 
Incarnate  Purpose,  The.     Percival,  23. 
Indian  Buddhism.     Rhys  Davids,  13. 
Individual   Soul,  Genesis   and   Evolution  of. 

Bevan,  15. 
Individualism  and  Collectivism.     Dr.   C.  W. 

Saleeby,  30. 
Indoor  Gymnastics,  Medical,  49. 
Industrial  Remuneration,  Methods  of.     D.  F. 

Schloss,  54. 
Infinitesimals  and  Limits.    Hardy,  44. 
Inflammation  Idea.     W.  H.  Ransom,  48. 
Influence  of  Rome  on  Christianity.   Renan,  13. 
Inorganic  Chemistry.     J.  L.  Howe,  45. 
Inorganic     Qualitative     Chemical     Analysis. 

Leavenworth,  46. 
Introduction  to  the  Greek  New  Test.  Nestle,  6. 
Introduction  to  the  Old  Test.     Cornill,  3. 
Introduction   to  the  Preparation   of  Organic 

Compounds.     Fischer,  44. 
Isaiah,  Hebrew  Text,  35. 

Jeremias,  Prof.  A.  Old  Testament  in  the  Light 
of  the  East,  2. 

Jesus  of  Nazara.     Keim,  7. 

Jesus  or  Christ?  The  Hibbert  Journal  Supple- 
ment for  1909,  20. 

Jesus.     Wilhelm  Bousset,  10. 

Jesus,  Sayings  of.     Harnack,  12. 

Job,  Book  of.    G.  H.  Bateson  Wright,  28. 

Job,  Book  of.    Rabbinic  Commentary  on,  37. 

Job.     Hebrew  Text,  35. 

Johnson,  Edwin,  M.A.  Antiqua  Mater,  20; 
English  Culture,  20 ;  Rise  of  Christendom  20. 


Johnstone,  J.     British  Fisheries,  45  ;  Cardium, 

46. 
Jones,  Prof.  Henry.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Jones,  Rev.  J.  C.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Jones,   Rev.  R.  Crompton.     Hymns  of  Duty 

and  Faith,  21 ;  Chants,  Psalms  and  Canticles, 

21  ;  Anthems,  21;  The  Chants  and  Anthems, 

21  ;  A  Book  of  Prayer,  21. 
Jones,  J.  T.  Share.     Life-Size  Models  of  the 

Horse,  45  ;  Surgical  Anatomy  of  the  Horse, 

45- 
Jones.     The  Freezing  Point,  45. 
Jordan,  H.  R.     Blaise  Pascal,  29. 
Journal  of  the  Federated  Malay  States,  56. 
Journal  of  the  Linnean  Society.     Botany  and 

Zoology,  45,  56. 
Journal  of  the  Quekett   Microscopical  Club, 

45.  56.  ... 

Journal  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society, 

,  45>  5°- 

Justice.     Herbert  Spencer,  32. 

Kantian  Ethics.     J.  G.  Schurman,  30. 

Karaite  MSS.     Dr.  R.  Hoerning,  20. 

Kautzsch,  E.  History  of  the  Literature  of  the 
Old  Testament,  20. 

Keim.     History  of  Jesus  of  Nazara,  7. 

Kennedy,  Rev.  Jas.  Introduction  to  Biblical 
Hebrew,  35;    Hebrew  Synonyms,  35. 

Kiepert's  New  Atlas  Antiquus,  52. 

Kiepert's  Wall-Maps  of  the  Ancient  World,  53. 

Kindergarten,  The.     H.  Goldammer,  52. 

Kittel,  R.  History  of  the  Hebrews,  5;  Scienti- 
fic Study,  O.T.,  12. 

Knight,  edited  by.     Essays  on  Spinoza,  33. 

Knowledge,  Evolution  of.     Perrin,  23. 

Kuenen,  Dr.  A.  National  Religions  and  Uni- 
versal Religion,  13  ;  Religion  of  Israel,  8. 

Kyriakides,  A.  Modern  Greek-English  Dic- 
tionary, 39. 

Laboratory  Experiments.     Noyes  and   Mulli- 

ken,  48. 
Ladd,  Prof.  G.  T.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Lake,  Kirsopp.     Resurrection,  n. 
Landolt,  Hans.    Optical  Rotating  Power,  46. 
Laurie,    Prof.    Simon.      Ethica,    30 ;     Meta- 

physica  Nova  et  Vetusta,  30. 
Lea,  Henry  Chas.     Sacerdotal  Celibacy,  22. 
Leabhar  Breac,  40. 
Leabhar  Na  H-Uidhri,  40. 
Leavenworth,  Prof.  W.  S.     Inorganic  Quali- 
tative Chemical  Analysis,  46. 
Leblanc,     Dr.     Max.       The    Production    of 

Chromium,  46. 
Le  Coup  de  Pistolet.     Merimee,  38. 
Lepeophtheirus  and  Lernea.     Vide  L.M.B.C. 

Memoirs,  46. 
Letter    to     the     "Preussische    Jahrbucher." 

Adolf  Harnack,  18. 
Lettsom,  W.  N.,  trans,  by.     Nibelungenlied, 

40. 
Lewis,  Agnes  Smith.    Old  Syriac  Gospels,  35. 
Liberal  Christianity.     Jean  Reville,  9. 
Life  and  Matter.     Sir  O.  Lodge,  22. 
Life  of  the  Spirit,  The.     Eucken,  12. 
Lilja.     Edited  by  E.  Magnusson,  40. 


INDEX— Continued. 


61 


Lilley,  Rev.  A.  L.     Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Lineus.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Linnean  Society  of  London,  Journals  of,  56. 
Liverpool  Marine  Biology  Committee  Memoirs, 

I.-XVL,  47. 
Lluria,  Dr.     Super-Organic  Evolution,  47. 
Lobstein,  Paul.     Virgin  Birth  of  Christ,  9. 
Lodge,  Sir  O.     Life  and  Matter,  22 ;  School 

Teaching  and  School  Reform,  40. 
Logarithmic  Tables.    Sang,  49 ;    Schroen,  49. 
London  Library,  Catalogue  of,  sr. 
London  Library  Subject  Index,  53. 
Long,  J.  H.     A  Text-book  of  Urine  Analysis, 

47- 
Luke  the  Physician.     Adolf  Harnack,  n. 
Lyall,  C.  J.,  M.A.     Ancient  Arabian  Poetry, 

35- 

Macan,  R.  W.  The  Resurrection  of  Jesus 
Christ,  22. 

MacColl,  Hugh.  Man's  Origin,  Destiny,  and 
Duty,  30. 

Macfie,  R.  C.  Science,  Matter,  and  Immor- 
tality, 22. 

Machberoth  Ithiel.     Thos.  Chenery,  35. 

Mackay,  R.  W.  Rise  and  Progress  of  Chris- 
tianity, 22. 

Mad  Shepherds,  and  other  Studies.  Jacks, 
20. 

Magnusson,  edited  by.     Lilja,  40. 

Mahabharata,  Index  to.     S.  Sorensen,  36. 

Mahaffy,  J.  P.,  D.D.  Flinders  Petrie  Papyri. 
Cunningham  Memoirs,  44  ;  Hellenic  Studies, 
33- 

Man  and  the  Bible.    J.  A.  Picton,  24. 

Man's  Origin,  Destiny,  and  Duty.     MacColl, 

3°- 

Man  versus  the  State.     Herbert  Spencer,  32. 
Maori,    Lessons     in.       Right    Rev.     W.     L. 

Williams,  42. 
Maori,  New  and  Complete  Manual  of,  40. 
Marine  Zoology  of  Okhamandal,  45. 
Markham,  Sir  Clements,  K.C.  B.   Vocabularies 

of  the  Incas  of  Peru,  40. 
Marriner,  G.  R.     The  Kea,  47. 
Martineau,      Rev.      Dr.     James.        Modern 

Materialism,  21  ;    Relation  between  Ethics 

and  Religion,  2r. 
Mason,   Prof.   W.   P.     Notes  on   Qualitative 

Analysis,  47. 
Massoretic  Text.     Rev.  Dr.  J.  Taylor,  26. 
Masterman,   C.   F.   G.     Child  and  Religion, 

10. 
Meade,   R.   K.      Chemist's  Pocket    Manual ; 

Portland  Cement,  47. 
Mediaeval    Thought,   History  of.      R.   Lane 

Poole,  24. 
Melville,   Helen  and   Lewis.      The    Seasons, 

Anthology,  54. 
Mercer,  Right  Rev.  J.  Edward,  D.D.     Soul 

of  Progress,  22. 
Meredith,  L.  B.     Rock  Gardens,  54. 
Merimee,    Prosper.      Le    Coup    de    Pistolet, 

38. 
Metallic    Objects,    Production    of.      Dr.   W. 

Pfanhauser,  48. 
Metallurgy.     Wysor,  50. 


Metaphysica  Nova  et  Vetusta.     Prof.  Simon 

Laurie,  30. 
Midrash,  Christianity  in.     Herford,  19. 
Milanda      Panho,      The.      Edited     by     V. 

Trenckner,  35. 
Mission  and  Expansion  of  Christianity.    Adolf 

Harnack,  3. 
Mitchell,   Rev.   A.    F.      How  to  Teach   the 

Bible,  22. 
Mitchell,  Rev.    C.   W.     Refutation  of  Mani, 

Marcion,  etc.,  37. 
Modern  Greek  -  English  Dictionary.     Kyria- 

kides,  39. 
Modernity  and  the  Churches.     Percy  Gardner, 

12. 
Modern      Materialism.      Rev.      Dr.     James 

Martineau,  22. 
Moisson,  Henri.     Electric  Furnace,  47. 
Molecular  Weights,  Methods  of  Determining. 

Henry  Biltz,  43. 
Monasticism.     Adolf  Harnack,  12. 
Montefiore,   C.   G.     Religion  of  the  Ancient 

Hebrews,  13. 
Moorhouse  Lectures.     Vide  Mercer's  Soul  of 

Progress,     22 ;     Stephen,    Democracy     and 

Character,  26  ;  Green's  Ephesian  Writings, 

Morrison,  Dr.  W.  D.    Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Mosheh  ben  Shesheth.     S.  R.  Driver.     Edited 

by.  23. 
Moslem    Present.       Faizullah-Bhai,     Shaikh, 

B.D.,  34. 
Munsterberg,  Hugo.     The  Americans,  23. 
My  Struggle  for  Light.     R.  Wimmer,  9. 
Mystery  of  Newman.     Henri  Bremond,  15. 

Nakaido.     Beet-Sugar  Making,  48. 

National  Idealism  and  State  Church,  16 ;  and 

the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  16. 
National   Religions  and  Universal  Religion. 

Dr.  A.  Kuenen,  13. 
Native  Religions  of  Mexico  and  Peru.    Dr.  A. 

Reville,  14. 
Naturalism  and  Religion.     Dr.  Rudolf  Otto, 

23-. 
Nautical  Terms.     L.  Delbos,  39. 
Naville,  Prof.  E.     The  Old  Egyptian   Faith, 

12. 
Nestle.    Introduction  to  the  Greek  New  Test.,  6. 
New  Hebrew  School  of  Poets.     Edited  by  H. 

Brody  and  K.  Albrecht,  35. 
New  Theology  Sermons.   Rev.  R.  J.  Campbell, 

New  Zealand  Language,  Dictionary  of.     Rt. 

Rev.  W.  L.  Williams,  42. 
Nibelungenlied.    Trans.  W.  L.  Lettsom,  40.  _ 
Nissenson.       Arrangements    of    Electrolytic 

Laboratories,  48. 
Noldeke,   Theodor.      Delectus  Veterum,   36  ; 

Syriac  Grammar,  36. 
Norris,  E.    Assyrian  Dictionary,  36. 
Norwegian  Sayings  translated  into  English, 
Noyes,  A.  A.    Organic  Chemistry,  48. 
Noyes,  A.  A.,  and  Milliken,  Samuel.    Labora 

tory  Experiments,  48. 

O'Grady,  Standish,  H.     Silva  Gadelica,  41. 


62 


INDEX— Continued. 


Old  and  New  Certainty  of  the  Gospel.    Alex . 

Robinson,  25. 
Oldenberg,  Dr.  H.,  edited  by.     Dipavamsa, 

The,  34. 
Old  French,  Introduction  to.    F.  F.  Roget,  41. 
Old  Syriac  Gospels,  Lewis,  35. 
Old    Testament    in    the   Light  of  the   East. 

Jeremias,  2. 
Oordt,  J.  F.  Van,  B.A.     Cape  Dutch,  41. 
Open  Letter  to  English  Gentlemen,  54. 
Ophthalmic  Test  Types.     Snellen's,  49. 
Optical  Rotating  Power.    Hans  Landolt,  46. 
"  Opus  Majus"  of  Roger  Bacon,  29. 
Organic  Chemistry.     A.  A.  Noyes,  48. 
Otto,  Rudolf.     Naturalism  and  Religion,  11. 
Outlines  of  Church  History.    Von  Schubert,  3. 
Outlines  of  Psychology.     Wilhelm  Wundt,  33. 

Pali,  Handbook  of.     Dr.  O.  Frankfurter,  35. 

Pali  Miscellany.     V.  Trenckner,  36. 

Parker,    W.   K.,    F.R.S.     Morphology  of  the 

Duck  Tribe  and  the  Auk  Tribe,  44. 
Pascal,  Blaise.     H.  R.Jordan,  29. 
Patella.     Vide  L.M. B.C.  Memoirs,  47. 
Paul.     Baur,  7  ;  Pfleiderer,  13 ;  Weinel,  3. 
Paulinism.     Pfleiderer,  8. 
Pearson,  Joseph.     Cancer,  47. 
Pecton.     Vide  L.M.B.C.  Memoirs,  47. 
Peddie,  R.  A.     Printing  at  Brescia,  54. 
Percival,  G.  H.     The  Incarnate  Purpose,  23. 
Perrin,  R.  S.     Evolution  of  Knowledge,  23. 
Personal  and  Family  Prayers,  23. 
Persian    Language,    A    Grammar  of.     J.  T. 

Platts,  36. 
Peters,  Dr.  John  P.     Early  Hebrew  Story,  9. 
Petet,  R.     How  to  Build  an  Aeroplane,  48. 
Pfanhauser,  Dr.  W.     Production  of  Metallic 

Objects,  48. 
Pfleiderer,  Otto.    Early  Christian  Conception, 

10;  Lectures  on  Apostle  Paul,  13  ;  Paulinism, 

8 ;    Philosophy   of    Religion,    8  ;    Primitive 

Christianity,  3,  3. 
Phillips,  F.  C.    Analysis  of  Ores,  48. 
Phillipps,  V.,  B.A.     Short  Sketch  of  German 

Literature,  41. 
Philo  Judaeus.     Dr.  Drummond,  17. 
Philosophy  and  Experience.     Hodgson,  29. 
Philosophy  of  Religion.     Pfleiderer,  8. 
Picton,  J.  Allanson.     Man  and  the  Bible,  24. 
Piddington,  H.     Sailors'  Horn  Book,  48. 
Pikler,    Jul.      Psychology    of  the    Belief  in 

Objective  Existence,  30. 
Platts,   J.   T.      A  Grammar  ot    the    Persian 

Language,  36. 
Pleuronectes.     Vide  L.M. B.C.  Memoirs,  46. 
Pocket  Flora  of  Edinburgh.  C.  O.  Sonntag,  49. 
Polychaet  Larvae.     Vide  L.M. B.C.  Memoirs, 

47-  __  . 

Poole,     Reg.     Lane.     History    of    Mediaeval 

Thought,  24. 
Portland  Cement.     Meade,  47. 
Pray,  Dr.     Astigmatic  Letters,  48. 
Prayers  for  Christian  Worship.     Sadler,  24. 
Prehistoric  Times.     Lord  Avebury,  51. 
Pre-Islamitic  Arabic  Poetry.     Shaikh  Faizul- 

lah-Bhai,  B.D.,  34. 
Primitive  Christianity.     Otto  Pfleiderer,  2,  3. 


Printing  at  Brescia.    R.  A.  Peddie,  54. 

Prison,  The.     H.  B.  Brewster,  29. 

Proceedings  of  the  Aristotelian  Society,  30. 

Proceedings  of  the  Optical  Convention,  48. 

Prolegomena.     Reville,  8. 

Protestant  Commentary  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment, 8,  24. 

Psalms,  Hebrew  Text,  34. 

Psychology  of  the  Belief  in  Objective  Exist- 
ence.    Jul.  Pikler,  30. 

Psychology,  Principles  of,  Spencer,  31  ;  Out- 
lines of,  Wundt,  33. 

Punnett,  R.  C.     Lineus,  46. 

Qualitative  Analysis,  Notes  on.  Prof.  W.  P. 
Mason,  47. 

Ransom,  W.  H.  The  Inflammation  Idea,  48. 
Rashdall,  Dr.  Hastings.     Anglican  Liberalism, 

12. 
Ray,  Prof.  P.  C.     Hindu  Chemistry,  48. 
Reasons  for  Dissenting  from  the  Philosophy  of 

M.  Comte.     Herbert  Spencer,  32. 
Re-Creation.     Rev.  C.  W.  Formby,  17. 
Recollections  of  a  Scottish  Novelist.    Walford, 

Reform  in  Primary  Education.    J.  G.    Hag- 

mann,  39. 
Reformation  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.     Rev. 

Dr.  C.  Beard,  15. 
Refutation  of  Mani,  Marcion,  etc.,  37. 
Reinforced  Concrete  in  Europe.     Colby,  43. 
Rejoinder  to  Prof.  Weismann,  32. 
Relation  between  Ethics  and  Religion.     Rev. 

Dr.  James  Martineau,  22. 
Religion  and  Modern  Culture.     Sabatier,  10. 
Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt.     Kenouf,  14. 
Religion    of   the    Ancient   Hebrews.      C.  G. 

Montefiore,  13. 
Religion  of  Israel.     Kuenen,  8. 
Religions  of  Ancient  Babylonia  and  Assyria. 

Prof.  A.  H.  Sayce,  14. 
Religions  of  Authority  and  the  Spirit.    Auguste 

Sabatier,  4. 
Renan,  E.    Influence  of  Rome  on  Christianity, 

J3-  .   . 

Renouf,  P.  L.  Religion  of  Ancient  Egypt,  14. 
Reorganisation  of  Philosophy.  Hodgson,  29. 
Resurrection    of    Jesus    Christ.      Lake,    21 ; 

R.  W.  Macau,  SI. 
Reville,  Dr.  A.     Native  Religions  of  Mexico 

and  Peru,  14  ;  The  Song  of  Songs,  24. 
Reville.     Prolegomena,  8. 
Reville,  Jean.     Liberal  Christianity,  9. 
Rhys,  Prof.  J.     Celtic  Heathendom,  14. 
Ring  of  Pope  Xystus,  54. 
Rise  and   Progress  of  Christianity.     R.   W. 

Mackay,  22. 
Rise  of  Christendom.     Edwin  Johnson,  20. 
Rise  of  English  Culture.    Edwin  Johnson,  20. 
Rix,  Herbert.     Dawning  Faith,  24  ;  Tent  and 

Testament,  24. 
Robinson,  Alex.     Old  and  New  Certainty  of 

the  Gospel,  25  ;  Study  of  the  Saviour,  25. 
Rock  Gardens.     L.  B.  Meredith,  54. 
Roget,  F.  F.     First  Steps  in  French  History 

41 ;  Introduction  to  Old  French,  41. 


I N  D  EX— Continued. 


63 


Romans.     Alton  and  Goligher,  33. 
Rosing,  S.    English-Danish  Dictionary,  41. 
Royal   Astronomical    Society.     Memoirs  and 

Monthly  Notices,  56. 
Royal    Dublin    Society.      Transactions    and 

Proceedings,  56. 
Royal    Irish    Academy.      Transactions    and 

Proceedings,  56. 
Royal   Society  of  Edinburgh.     Transactions 

of,  56. 
Runes,  The.     Geo.  Stephens,  55. 
Runic    Monuments,    Old    Northern.       Geo. 

Stephens,  55. 
Ruth,  Book  of,  in  Hebrew  Text.     Rev.  C.  H. 

H.  Wright,  28. 


Sabatier,  Auguste.  Doctrine  of  the  Atone- 
ment, 10 ;  Religions  of  Authority  and  the 
Spirit,  4. 

Sacerdotal  Celibacy.     Henry  Chas.  Lea,  22. 

Sadi.  The  Gulistan  (Rose  Garden)  of  Shaik 
Sadi  of  Shiiaz,  36. 

Sadler,  Rev.  Dr.  Closet  Prayers,  24  ;  Prayers 
for  Christian  Worship,  25. 

Sagas  of  Olaf  Tryggvason  and  Harold  the 
Tyrant,  54. 

Sailors'  Horn  Book.     H.  Piddington,  48. 

Saleeby,  C.  W.  Individualism  and  Collec- 
tivism, 30. 

Sang's  Logarithms,  49. 

Saunders,  T.  B.    Harnack  and  his  Critics,  25. 

Savage,  M.  J.     Beliefs  about  the  Bible,  24. 

Sayce,  Prof.  A.  H.  Religion  of  Ancient 
Assyria,  14. 

Sayings  of  Jesus,  The.    Adolf  Harnack,  n. 

Scallard.     Early  Christian  Ethics,  31. 

Schloss,  D.  F.  Methods  of  Industrial  Re- 
muneration, 54. 

School  Teaching  and  School  Reform.  Sir  O. 
Lodge,  40. 

Schrader.    The  Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  8. 

Schreber,  D.  G.  M.  Medical  Indoor  Gym- 
nastics, 49. 

Schroen,  L.     Seven-Figure  Logarithms,  48. 

Schubert,  Hans  von.     History  of  the  Church,  3. 

Schurman,  J.  Gould.  Ethical  Import  of 
Darwinism,  30  ;  Kantian  Ethics,  30. 

Science,  Matter,  and  Immortality.  R.  C. 
Macfie,  22. 

Scientific  Study  of  the  Old  Testament,  12. 

Scott,  Andrew.  Lepeophtheirus  and  Lernea, 
46. 

Scott,  E.  F.    Apologetic  of  the  New  Test.,  11. 

Scripture,  Edward  W.,  Ph.D.  Studies  from 
the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,  31. 

Seasons,  The  ;  An  Anthology,  54  ;  Sentimental 
Journey.    A.  G.  Sterne,  55. 

Second  Year  Chemistry.     Edward  Hart,  45. 

Seeberg.  R.  Fundamental  Truths  of  the 
Christian  Religion,  12. 

Seger.    Collected  Writings,  49. 

Seven- Figure  Logarithms.    L.  Schroen,  40. 

Severus,  Patriarch  of  Antioch.     Letters  of,  26. 

Sharpe,  Henry.     Britain  b.c,  54. 

Sharpe,  Samuel.  Bible,  translated  by,  15 ; 
Critical  Notes  on  New  Testament,  26. 


Shearman,  A.  T.    Symbolic  Logic,  31. 
Shihab  Al   Din.     Futuh  Al-Habashah.     Ed. 

by  S.  Strong,  36. 
Short  History  ot  the  Hebrew  Text.    T.   H. 

Weir,  27. 
Sichel,  Walter.     Laurence  Sterne,  54. 
Silva  Gadelica.     Standish  H.  O'Grady,  41. 
Snellen's  Ophthalmic  Test  Types,  49. 
Snyder,  Harry.     Soils  and  Fertilisers,  49. 
Social  Gospel,  Essays  on  the,  11. 
Social  Idealism.     Stocker,  33. 
Social  Statics.     Herbert  Spencer,  32. 
Sociology,  Principles  of.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 
Sociology,  Study  of.     Herbert  Spencer,  32. 
Soden,   H.  von,   D.D.      Books   of   the    New 

Testament,  10. 
Soils  and  Fertilisers.     Snyder,  49. 
Soils.     Vide  Wiley's  Agricultural  Analysis,  50. 
Soliloquies  of  St.  Augustine,  ji, 
Sonntag,  C.  O.    A   Pocket  "Flora   of    Edin- 
burgh, 49. 
Sorensen,  S.     Index  to  the  Mahabharata,  36. 
Soul  of  Progress.     Bishop  Mercer,  22. 
Spanish  Dictionary,  Larger.     Velasquez,  41. 
Spencer,   Herbert.      A    System  of   Synthetic 

Philosophy,  31 ;  Descriptive  Sociology,  Nos. 

1-8,  31  ;  Theory  of  Religion  and  Morality, 

32  ;  Works  by,  31-32. 
Spinal  Cord,  Topographical  Atlas  of.     Alex. 

Bruce,  M.A.,  etc.,  43. 
Spinoza.     Edited  by  Prof.  Knight,  33. 
Spiritual  Teaching  of  Christ's  Life,  Henslow,  19. 
Statuette,  The,  and  the  Background.     H.  B. 

Brewster,  29. 
Statutes,  The,  of  the  Apostles.     G.   Horner, 

26,  37. 
Stephen,  Canon.  Democracy  and  Character,  26. 
Stephens,  Geo.     Bugge's  Studies  on  Northern 

Mythology  Examined,   55 ;    Old    Northern 

Runic  Monuments,  55  ;  The  Runes,  55. 
Stephens,    Thos.,    B.A.,  Editor.     The   Child 

and  Religion,  10. 
Stereochemistry,  Elements  of.     Hantzsch,  44. 
Sterne.    A  Study.     Walter  Sichel,  54  ;  Senti- 
mental Journey,  55. 
Stewart,  Rev.  C.  R.  S.  Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 
Stillman,  T.  B.     Engineering  Chemistry,  49. 
Stocker,  R.  D.     Social  Idealism,  33. 
Storms.     Piddington,  48. 
Strong,  S.  Arthur,  ed.  by.    Shihab  AI  Din,  36. 
Study  of  the  Saviour.    Alex.  Robinson,  25. 
Studies     on     Northern     Mythology.       Geo. 

Stephens,  55. 
Stud  ies  from  the  Yale  Psychological  Laboratory. 

Edward  W.  Scripture,  Ph.D.,  31. 
Subject-Index  to  London  Library  Catalogue, 

53;  ,___-. 

Sullivan,  W.  K.    Celtic  Studies,  41. 
Super-Organic  Evolution.    Lluria,  47. 
Surgical  Anatomy  of  the  Horse.    J.  T.  Share 

Jones,  45. 
Symbolic  Logic.    A.  T.  Shearman,  31. 
Synthetic    Philosophy,    Epitome  of.      F.   H. 

Collins,  33. 
Syriac  Grammar.     Theodor  Ndldeke,  36. 
System    of   Synthetic    Philosophy.      Herbert 

Spencer,  31. 


64 


INDEX— Continued. 


Tayler,  Rev.  John  James.     Character  of  the 

Fourth  Gospel,  26. 
Taylor,  Rev.  C.     Dirge  of  Coheleth,  The,  26. 
Taylor,  Rev.  Dr.  J.     Massoretic  Text,  26. 
Ten  Services  and  Psalms  and  Canticles,  27. 
Ten  Services  of  Public  Prayer,  27. 
Tennant,  Rev.  F.  R.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Tent  and  Testament.     Herbert  Rix,  24. 
Testament,  Old.     Canonical  Books  of,  3  ;  Re- 
ligions of,   n  ;    Cuneiform  Inscriptions,  25  ; 

Hebrew  Text,  Weir,  27  ;  Literature,  21. 
Testament,  The  New,  Critical  Notes  on.     C. 

Tischendorf,  27. 
Testament  Times,  New.    Acts  of  the  Apostles, 

12;   Apologetic  of,    11;   Books  of  the,    10; 

Commentary,   Protestant,  8  ;  History  of,  7 ; 

Luke  the  Physician,  11 ;  Textual  Criticism,  6. 
Test  Types.     Pray,  48  ;  Snellen,  49. 
Text  and  Translation  Society,  Works  by,  37. 
Theories  of  Anarchy  and  of   Law.      H.    B. 

Brewster,  28. 
Thermometer,  History  of  the.     Bolton,  43. 
Thomas,    Rev.  J.   M.  L.      A   Free  Catholic 

Church,  27. 
Thornton,  Rev.  J.  J.     Child  and  Religion,  10. 
Tischendorf,  C.    The  New  Testament,  26. 
Tourist  Guides.    Grieben's,  52. 
Tower,  O.  F.     Conductivity  of  Liquids,  49. 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  56. 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  56. 
Transactions  of  the  Royal  Societyof  Edinburgh, 

5°- 
Trenckner,  V.     Pali  Miscellany,  36. 
Truth  of  Religion,  The.     Eucken,  2. 
Turpie,  Dr.  D.  M'C.     Manual  of  the  Chaldee 

Language,  37. 

Universal  Christ.     Rev.  Dr.  C.  Beard,  14. 
Universalism  Asserted.     Rev.  Thos.  Allin,  14. 
Upton,  Rev.C.  B.    Bases  of  Religious  Belief,  14. 
Urine  Analysis,  A  Text-Book  of.     Long,  47. 

Vaillante,  Vincent,  38. 

Various  Fragments.     Herbert  Spencer,  31. 

Vega.     Logarithmic  Tables,  50. 

Veiled  Figure,  The,  55. 

Velasquez.     Larger  Spanish  Dictionary,  41. 

Venable,  T.  C.     Development  of  the  Periodic 

Law,  50 ;  Study  of  Atom,  50. 
Via,  Veritas,  Vita.     Dr.  Drummond,  13. 
Viga  Glums  Saga.     Sir  E.  Head,  41. 
Vincent,  Jacques.     Vaillante,  38. 
Virgin  Birth  of  Christ.    Paul  Lobstein,  9. 
Vulgate,  The.     Henslow,  19. 


Vynne  and  Blackburn.  Women  under  the 
Factory  Acts,  55. 

Walford.     Recollections,  55. 

Wallis,  H.  W.    Cosmology  of  the  Rigveda,  37. 

Was  Israel  ever  in  Egypt?  G.  H.  B.  Wright, 
28. 

Weir,  T.  H.  Short  History  of  the  Hebrew 
Text,  27. 

Weisse,  T.H.  Elements  of  German,  41 ;  Short 
Guide  to  German  Idioms,  42  ;  Systematic 
Conversational  Exercises  in  German,  41. 

Weizsacker,  Carl  von.     The  Apostolic  Age,  6. 

Weld,  A.  G.     Glimpses  of  Tennyson,  55. 

Werner,  E.  T.  C.    Chinese,  33. 

Werner's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Cape  Dutch, 
42. 

Wernle,  Paul.     Beginnings  of  Christianity,  4. 

What  is  Christianity  ?    Adolf  Harnack,  5,  9. 

Wicksteed,  Rev.  P.  H.  Ecclesiastical  Institu- 
tions of  Holland,  27. 

Wiley,  Harvey  W.  Agricultural  Chemical 
Analysis,  50. 

Wilkinson,  Rev.  J.  R.  Anglican  Liberalism, 
12. 

Williams,  Right.  Rev.  W.  L.,  D.C.L.  Diction- 
ary of  the  New  Zealand  Language,  42 ;  Les- 
sons in  Maori,  42. 

Wimmer,  R.     My  Struggle  for  Light,  9. 

Women  under  the  Factory  Acts.  Vynne  and 
Blackburn,  55. 

Women's  Suffrage.     Helen  Blackburn,  51. 

Woods,  C.  E.     The  Gospel  of  Rightness,  28. 

Woods,  Dr.  H.  G.    Anglican  Liberalism,  12. 

Wright,  Rev.  C.  H.  H.  Book  of  Genesis  in 
Hebrew  Text,  28  ;  Book  of  Ruth  in  Hebrew 
Text,  28  ;  Daniel  and  its  Critics,  28  ;  Daniel 
and  his  Prophecies,  28  ;  Light  from  Egyptian 
Papyri,  28. 

Wright,  G.  H.  Bateson.  Book  of  Job,  28 ; 
Was  Israel  ever  in  Egypt  ?  28. 

Wright,  W.,  and  Dr.  Hirsch,  edited  by.  Com- 
mentary on  the  Book  of  Job,  28. 

Wundt,  Wilhelm.    Outlines  of  Psychology,  32. 

Wysor.     Metallurgy,  50. 

Yale  Psychological  Laboratory,  Studies  from, 

,  33- 

Yellow  Book  of  Lecan,  42. 

Zeller,  Dr.  E.     Acts  of  the  Apostles,  8. 
Zoega,  G.  T.  English-Icelandic  Dictionary,  42. 
Zompolides,   Dr.   D.      A  Course  of   Modern 
Greek,  42. 


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